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For  Better  Crops  in  the  South 


Page 

Corn  Culture  in  the  South _ _ 5-13 

By  J.  OscA*i  Morgan,  Ph.  D. 

Increasing  Soil  Fertility.... , 14-33 

By  Cyril  G.  Hopkins 

How  to  Grow  Cotton  in  Spite  of  Boll  WeeviL... 34-42 

By  G.  H.  Alford 

Small  Grains  in  tl  e  South 43-62 

By  Prof.  M.  A.  Carlton 

Grasses  and  LeguminoLis  Crops  in  the  South -._ 53-63 

By  S.  M.  Tracy 

Texas  Fever  Tick 64-73 

By  Dr.  Mark  Francis 

Growing-  Eice  in  the  South 74-85 

By  F.  C.  QuEREAu 

The  Care  and  Protection  of  Farm  Equipment 86-90 

By  M.  K.  D.  OwiNGS 

Tile  Drainage  in  the  South.. . 91-100 

By  J.  E.  Waggoner 

Copyright  1913  , 

BY 

I  H  C    Service  Bureau 
International  Harvester  Company  of  America 

(Tncorporated) 
Chicago  USA 

281909 

S.B.229C 


ISSUED  BY  THE 

I  H  C    SERVICE    BUREAU 

INTERNATIONAL.    HARVESTER    COMPANY 

OF  AMERICA 

HARVESTER   BUILDING 

CHICAGO     USA 


Corn  Culture  in  the  South 


By  J.  Oscar  Morgan,  Ph.  D. 

Professor  of  Agronomy,  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  of  Texas, 
College  Station,  Texas 


THE  South's  Corn  Crop— The  fact  that 
the  South  produces  annually  nearly  a  bil- 
lion bushels  of  corn,  valued  at  more  than 
a  half-billion  dollars,  and  this  from  an 
average  yield  of  only  twenty  bushels  per 
acre,  makes  plain  the  great  future  pos- 
sibilities of  this  section  as  a  corn-grow- 
ing region.  An  increased  yield  per  acre, 
rather  than  a  greater  acreage,  is  the  most 
urgent  need  of  Southern  corn  growers. 

The  Factors  in  Corn   Production  — 

The  essential  factors  in  successful  corn 
production  are  good  land  well  prepared,  good  seed,  good  care  of 
the  crop,  and  a  favorable  season.  The  two  factors  that  are 
most  responsible  for  the  low  yield  of  corn  in  the  South  are 
poor  soil  badly  prepared^  and  poor  seed.  In  this  article  only  the 
soil  and  its  preparation,  together  with  cultural  methods,  will  be 
discussed. 

Soils  Best  Adapted  to  Corn— Few  crops  are  grown  on  so 
great  a  variety  of  soils  as  corn.  It  is  best  adapted  to  well 
drained,  alluvial,  river-bottom  soils.  Swamp  lands  that  have 
been  well  drained,  and  deep,  upland^soils  containing  rather  large 
amounts  of  organic  matter,  are  excellent  for  corn.  Owing  to  its 
extensive  leaf  surface,  corn  transpires  a  large  amount  of  water; 
hence  the  soil  upon  which  it  is  grown  must  have  a  high  water- 
holding  capacity,  thus  enabling  the  plants  to  get  water  rapidly 
even  during  periods  of  drouth.  Very  compact  clay  soils  or 
extremely  loose  sands  are  not  suitable  for  corn. 

Corn  Best  Grown  in  a  Rotation— The  continuous  growth 
of  corn  on  the  same  land  is  almost  certain  to  result  in  a  poor 
soil  and  consequently  an  unprofitable  yield.  With  heavy  appli- 
cations of  barnyard  manure  and  commercial  fertilizers  it  is  pos- 
sible to  produce  good  yields  for  a  long  series  of  years,  but  this 
method  is  rather  expensive,  and  greatly  cuts  down  the  profits. 
Few  farms  produce  manure  enough  to  practice  such  a  system 
successfully.  If  fertilizers  alone  are  depended  upon  to  keep  up 
the  yields,  the  soil  soon  becomes  deficient  in  organic  matter, 
runs  together  and  becomes  compact,  and  an  increasing  amount 


6  FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

of  fertiliser  Is  required  e^ch  year  to  maintain  the  yield.    This 
has  been  the  experience  of  thousands  of  Southern  corn  growers. 

A  Good  Rotation— There  is  no  one  best  rotation  for  corn. 
The  system  of  farming  to  be  practiced,  as  well  as  local  conditions, 
are  f.actors  that  must  be  considered  in  planning  the  rotation. 
The  following  rotation  is  applicable  to  most  of  the  Southern 
statesvT 

First  year :  Cotton  with  burr  clover  sown  in  fall  for  cover 
crop. 

Second  year:  Corn,  with  cowpeas  at  last  cultivation,  followed 
by  oats. 

Third  year :    Oats,  followed  by  cowpeas  for  hay. 

The  burr  clover,  following  the  cotton,  can  be  sown  at  the  last 
cultivation  of  the  cotton.    The  seeds  will  remain  in  the  soil  until 


Corn  field  in  Dixie  Land 

late  fall,  when  they  will  germinate  and  produce  a  winter  and 
early  spring  cover  crop  to  be  plowed  under  for  corn.  Where  it  is 
desirable  to  plow  the  land  in  the  fall,  no  cover  crop  should  be 
sown  in  the  cotton,  but  if  possible  it  should  be  sown  as  soon  as  the 
land  is  plowed.  The  soil  ought  not  to  be  left  without  a  crop 
during  the  winter  months,  as  this  results  in  the  loss  of  much 
plant  food  as  a  result  of  leaching.  A  winter  crop  is  also  very 
effective  in  preventing  erosion. 

The  cowpeas  sown  at  the  last  cultivation  of  the  corn  may  be 
harvested  for  seed  or  pastured  off.  The  cowpeas  after  oats  are 
best  harvested  for  hay.  After  this  crop  of  hay  is  harvested, 
some  winter-growing  crop  should  be  planted. 

Fertilizers  for  Corn  —  Corn  makes  a  rapid  growth,  producing 
a  large  amount  of  dry  matter  per  acre.  This  necessitates  the 
presence  of  rather  large  amounts  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil.  Phos- 
phorus, though  not  taken  up  in  as  large  amounts  as  nitrogen,  is 
quite  often  the  limiting  factor  in  the  growth  of  corn  on  south- 
ern soils,  due  to  its  general  deficiency  as  a  soil  constituent.    A 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  7 

crop  of  corn  producing  fifty  bushels  per  acre  removes  from  every 
acre  of  land  fifty  pounds  of  nitrogen,  eight  pounds  of  phosphorus, 
and  ten  pounds  of  potassium,  present  in  the  grain;  and  twenty- 
four  pounds  of  nitrogen,  three  pounds  of  phosphorus  and  twenty- 
six  pounds  of  potassium,  present  in  the  stalks  and  leaves.  This 
shows  that  the  greater  portions  of  both  nitrogen  and  phosphoric 
acid  are  in  the  grain.  The  common  practice  on  southern  farms 
is  to  dispose  of  the  grain  in  such  a  way  that  the  fertilizing  ele- 


Co'vrpeas  in  the  corn  field  indicates  ijood  farming 


ments  are  not  returned  to  the  soil.  The  potash  is  present  chiefly 
as  a  constituent  of  the  stalks,  and  as  the  stalks  are  more  often 
returned  to  the  soil,  together  with  the  fact  that  most  soils  con- 
tain rather  large  amounts  of  potash,  the  addition  of  potash 
fertilizer  to  the  corn  crop  is  generally  unnecessary.  Nitrogen 
and  phosphorus  are  the  two  elements  of  plant  food  that  must  be 
added  to  most  southern  soils,  if  corn  is  to  be  grown  successfully. 

Legumes   and  the   Nitrogen  Supply — Nitrogen   costs    the 
farmer  approximately  twenty  cents  a  pound  when  purchased  in 


8  FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

the  form  of  commercial  fertilizers.  This  makes  it  by  far  the 
most  expensive  element  of  plant  food  that  must  be  added  to  the 
soil.  There  is  above  each  acre  of  land  approximately  seventy- 
five  million  pounds  of  nitrogen,  as  a  constituent  of  the  air.  If 
corn  is  grov^^n  in  a  crop  rotation  that  includes  some  of  the 
legumes,  such  as  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  clovers,  vetches,  etc., 
these  legumes  take  up  a  portion  of  this  free  nitrogen  and  store 
it  up  in  such  a  form  that  the  corn  can  make  use  of  it,  thus  dis- 
pensing with  the  necessity  of  buying  this  expensive  element.  A 
crop  of  cowpeas  yielding  at  the  rate  of  one  and  one-half  tons  of 


A  lieavy  ^ro'vrth  of  soy  beans 


dry  matter  per  acre,  if  turned  under  will  add  to  each  acre  of  soil 
sixty-five  pounds  of  nitrogen,  or  as  much  as  is  contained  in  a 
forty-five  bushel  crop  of  corn.  If  purchased,  this  amount  of 
nitrogen  will  cost  the  farmer  about  thirteen  dollars.  Besides, 
the  organic  matter  added  by  the  cowpeas  is  worth  more  than 
the  nitrogen. 

Southern  Soils  Need  Phosphorus— A  very  large  proportion 
of  southern  soils  are  deficient  in  phosphorus,  especially  the  soils 
of  a  sandy  nature.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  large  areas  of 
soils  containing  less  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  phos- 
phorus per  acre  in  the  top  six  inches.  Corn  cannot  be  profitably 
grown  on  these  soils  without  the  addition  of  some  material 
containing  phosphorus.  Acid  phosphate  is  the  material  most 
commonly  used. 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  TEE  SOUTH  9 

Fertilizer  Formulas  for  Com— The  character  of  the  soil 
and  its  previous  treatment  will  determine  the  amounts  of  the 
fertilizing-  materials  to  be  added.  As  soils  are  extremely  variable, 
no  one  fertilizer  formula  can  be  given  that  will  fit  all  conditions. 
The  following-  amounts  per  acre  are  suggested  more  as  a  guide 
to  the  farmer  than  an  attempt  to  say  definitely  how  much  should 
be  applied: 

For  clay  and  clay  loams,  in  which  no  provision 
has  been  made  for  adding  organic  matter  :  150  to 
200  lbs.  acid  phosphate ;  200  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal. 
Or  150  to  200  lbs.  acid  phosphate,  75  to  100  lbs. 
nitrate  of  soda;  the  latter  being  drilled  in  six  or 
eight  inches  from  each  row  after  the  plants  are 
two  to  three  feet  high. 

For  sandy  lands:  150  to  200  lbs.  acid  phosphate, 
200  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal,  (or  100  lbs.  nitrate  of 
soda),  75  lbs.  kainit. 

If  green  crops  have  been  grown  and  plowed  into  the  land,  or 
if  medium  to  heavy  applications  of  barnyard  manure  have  been 
applied  within  one  or  two  years  preceding  the  growth  of  corn, 
the  cotton-seed  meal  and  nitrate  of  soda  may  be  omitted. 

When  and  How  to  Apply  Fertilizers — All  fertilizing  materi- 
als should*  be  applied  to  the  corn  crop  a  short  time  previous  to 
or  at  the  time  of  planting,  with  the  exception  of  nitrate  of  soda. 
This  latter  material  is  readily  soluble  and  easily  lost  from  the 
soil,  and  consequently  should  not  be  applied  until  the  plants  are 
growing.  A  good  practice  is  to  apply  a  portion  of  the  nitrogen 
at  the  time  of  planting,  in  the  form  of  cotton-seed  meal,  and 
later  supply  the  remainder  of  the  nitrogen  needed  in  the  form  of 
nitrate  of  soda. 

The  fertilizer  is  best  applied  by  means  of  a  fertilizer  distribu- 
tor, or  by  using  a  combined  fertilizer  distributor  and  planter. 
The  latter  can  be  very  profitably  used  in  applying  those  fertil- 
izers that  should  be  added  at  time  of  planting. 

Fall  versus  Spring  Plowing  for  Corn  —  There  are  many 
things  to  consider  in  comparing  the  relative  merits  of  fall  and 
spring  plowing.  If  the  farmer  is  willing  to  sow  a  cover  crop  on 
his  land  after  it  is  plowed  in  the  fall,  and  then  re-plow  it  in 
order  to  turn  this  cover  c/op  under  in  the  late  winter,  there  is 
no  doubt  but  that  he  will  find  this  a  very  profitable  practice. 
This  necessitates  more  work,  but  the  increased  yields  will 
more  than  repay  the  farmer  for  this  extra  work.  Soils  of  a 
sandy  nature  are  not  necessarily  best  plowed  in  the  fall.  A  good 
plan  is  to  disk  or  harrow  them  in  the  fall,  and  sow  some  cover 
crop,  such  as  crimson  clover,  burr  clover,  vetch,  or  the  small 
grains.    The  soil  is  then  plowed  in  late  winter  and  the  cover 


10  FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

crop  turned  under,  adding  organic  matter  to  the  soil.  In  humid 
regions,  soils  without  a  cover  crop  leach  badly,  especially  those 
of  a  sandy  nature.  Heavy  clay  soils  are  not  so  subject  to  leach- 
ing and  are  very  profitably  plowed  in  the  fall. 

Corn  requires  a  deep  soil,  which  means  deep  plowing.  The 
one-horse  plow  has  been  too  commonly  used  in  preparing  land 
for  corn  and  as  a  result  Southern  soils,  as  a  rule,  are  not  deep 
enough.  To  deepen  these  soils  will  mean  that  considerable  sub- 
soil will  have  to  be  brought  up  and  mixed  with  the  top  soil. 
This  should  be  done  in  the  fall,  as  subsoil  brought  to  the  surface 
in  the  spring  will  prove  Injurious. 

Preparation  of  Land  after  Plowing — A  large  part  of  the 
tillage  for  corn  should  be  done  before  the  crop  is  planted.  Har- 
rows are  not  used  enough  in  the  South.  The  disk  harrow,  the 
spring-tooth  harrow  and  the  spike- tooth  harrow  are  excellent 
implements  for  working  the  soil  into  a  good  seed  bed  after  it  is 


A  modern  corn  planter  in  operation 

plowed.  The  best  time  to  harrow  the  land  is  immediately 
after  plowing,  when  the  clods  are  moist  and  easily  pulverized. 
Poor  preparation  before  planting  means  a  large  expense  in  cul- 
tivating the  crop,  together  with  small  yields.  No  amount  of 
labor  should  be  spared  until  a  deep  soil  is  prepared  with  a  well 
pulverized  seed  bed  on  top. 

Methods  of  Planting— Corn  is  planted  in  drills  which  are 
from  four  to  five  feet  apart,  depending  on  the!  productiveness  of 
the  soil.  The  richer  the  soil,  the  closer  the  drills  can  be,  and  the 
closer  the  plants  in  the  row.  On  medium  soil,  capable  of  pro- 
ducing thirty-five  or  forty  bushels  of  corn  per  acre,  the  rows 
should  be  from  four  to  four  and  one-half  feet  apart,  and  the 
plants  from  fifteen  to  twenty  inches  in  the  drill.  For  silage, 
the  plants  should  be  much  thicker  in  the  drill. 

The  one-horse  planter  is  most  commonly  used  in  planting  the 
crop.  On  level  land  the  two-horse,  check-row  planter  can  very 
profitably  be  used.  Either  the  one-horse  or  two-horse  planter 
should  be  used,  as  these  implements  save  labor  and  afford  a  more 
even  stand  than  the  old  method  of  dropping  the  corn  by  hand. 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  TEE  SOUTH  11 

Depth  of  Planting — Corn  should  be  planted  deep  enough  to 
insure  a  generous  supply  of  moisture  for  germination.  On 
heavy  clay,  moist  soils,  planting  to  a  depth  of  one  inch  is  suf- 
ficient. On  loose,  sandy,  relatively  dry  soils,  planting  to  a 
depth  of  four  inches  is  often  necessary.  The  depth  will  vary 
between  these  depths,  depending  on  the  character  of  the  soil. 
Planting  late  in  the  season  usually  necessitates  deeper  covering 
than  early  planting. 

When  to  Plant— The  date  of  planting  corn  in  the  South 
ranges  from  the  latter  part  of  February  and  first  part  of  March, 


A  corn  field  on  the  I  H  C  demonstration  farm 
at  Marion,  Alabama 

in  the  southernmost  sections,  to  the  latter  part  of  April  and 
first  of  May  in  the  more  northern  sections.  Corn  should  not  be 
planted  until  all  danger  of  a  killing  frost  is  past,  and  the  soil  is 
becoming  warm.  Uplands  are  usually  planted  earlier  than  low- 
lands; sandy  lands  earlier  than  clay  lands. 

Cultivating  the  Corn  Crop — The  feeding  roots  of  corn  grow 
comparatively  near  the  surface  of  the  soil,  hence  deep  cultiva- 
tion is  very  injurious.  From  one  and  one-half  to  two  inches 
should  be  the  usual  depth  of  cultivation.  There  are  conditions 
under  which  deeper  cultivation  would  be  justifiable,  as,  for 
example,  when  the  corn  is  small  and  the  soil  hard  and  compact, 


12  FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

due  to  heavy  rains.  Deep  plowing,  as  a  rule,  should  be  done 
when  the  land  is  first  broken  and  shallow  cultivation  afterwards. 
Corn  should  be  cultivated  every  ten  days,  during  the  rapid  grow- 
ing season. 

The  Use  oi  the  Harrow  and  Weeder — The  harrow  and 
weeder  are  very  effective  weed  killers  and  their  frequent  use  in 
the  early  stages  of  the  corn's  growth  greatly  reduces  the  cost  of 
subsequent  tillage.  The  harrow  can,  and  should  be,  used  from 
the  time  the  corn  is  planted,  until  the  crop  is  three  or  four 
inches  high,  and  the  weeder  until  the  crop  is  six  or  eight  inches 
high.  This  is  the  cheapest  method  of  cultivating  young  corn, 
as  ten  to  twelve  acres  can  be  gone  over  in  a  day. 

One-Horse  Gultiyator — The  greater  portion  of  the  South 's 
corn  crop  is  cultivated  with  one-horse  implements.    These,  as 


Harveatin^  corn 

generally  known,  are  small-pointed  cultivators,  sweeps,  heel 
scrapers,  and  spring-tooth  cultivators.  These  implements  da 
very  satisfactory  work  when  properly  used,  but  are  not  so  eco- 
nomical of  labor  as  the  two-horse  cultivators.  If  used  when 
the  corn  is  very  small,  they  should  have  fenders  attached  to 
prevent  covering  the  plants  with  soil. 

Two-Horse  Cultivator — This  type  of  cultivator  should  be 
more  commonly  used  in  Southern  corn  culture  than  it  is  at 
present.  Twice  as  much  acreage  can  be  cultivated  in  a  day  as 
with  the  one-horse  cultivator,  and  the  labor  of  one  man  is  saved. 
With  the  present  cost  of  farm  labor,  this  means  a  considerable 
saving.  There  are  two  general  types  in  use:  the  disk  cultivators 
and  those  with  shovels  or  small  points.  In  using  the  disk  culti- 
vator, one  must  be  careful  to  see  that  it  does  not  cultivate  too 
deeply,  thus  injuring  the  roots.  If  the  corn  gets  so  high  as  to 
be  injured  by  the  two-horse  cultivator,  which  must  straddle  the 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IK  THE  SOUTH  13 

row,  the  last  cultivation  may  be  given  with  one  of  the  one-horse 
types. 

Harvesting  the  Corn  Crop — The  practices,  SO  common  in 
the  South,  of  stripping  the  blades  from  the  corn  plants  for 
"fodder,"  or  of  cutting  the  tops  just  above  the  ear,  are  too  waste- 
ful of  time  and  grain  to  warrant  their  use.  These  operations  are 
usually  performed  when  a  portion  of  the  leaves  have  turned 
yellow,  and  the  grain  is  beginning  to  become  hard  and  dented. 
Carefully  conducted  experiments  have  demonstrated  that  when 
the  corn  crop  is  thus  handled,  at  least  three  bushels  of  grain 
per  acre  are  lost;  besides,  it  is  a  slow  operation. 

The  most  profitable  way  to  harvest  the  corn  crop  is  to  cut  and 
shock  the  entire  plant  at  the  time  the  outer  shucks  have  turned 
a  straw  color,  and  the  grains  have  become  hard.  This  does  not 
reduce  the  yield  of  grain.  When  this  method  is  followed,  the 
crop  can  be  harvested  with  the  corn  harvester,  in  sections  where 
the  land  is  comparatively  level.  This  harvester  cuts  and  binds 
the  corn  in  bundles  ready  for  the  shock.  If  the  land  is  of  such  a 
nature  that  the  corn  harvester  cannot  be  used,  a  short-handled 
hoe  or  corn  knife  proves  satisfactory. 

Shredding  Corn— A  very  profitable  method  of  handling  the 
corn  crop,  after  it  has  been  shocked  and  allowed  to  dry  out 
thoroughly,  is  to  shred  it.  The  shredder  is  a  machine  that  tears 
the  stalks  to  pieces  and  husks  and  removes  the  ears  at  the  same 
operation.  In  this  condition  the  stalks  are  more  profitably 
utilized  than  when  they  are  fed  whole.  The  stock  eat  a  larger 
percentage  of  them^  the  stover  is  much  more  easily  handled,  and 
the  manure  produced  is  free  from  long  cornstalks  and  is  in  a  good 
mechanical  condition.  Another  advantage'  is  that  the  crop  is 
gotten  off  of  the  land  earlier,  thus  permitting  the  sowing  of  fall 
and  winter  crops. 

Very  often  a  number  of  farmers  in  a  community  will  combine 
and  buy  a  shredder,  as  the  operation  is  one  that  does  not  have  to 
be  done  at  any  particular  time,  thus  enabling  a  farmer  to  wait 
his  turn  without  any  loss. 


-^^^^i^^t^^^r^k^ 


Increasing  Fertility 


ELEMENTS  OF  SOIL  AND  THEIR  VALUE  TO  CROPS- 
FERTILIZERS  AND  SOIL  BUILDING 


By  Cyril  G.  Hopkins 

Professor  of  Agronomy,  College  of   Agriculture,  University  of  Illinois 


IF  he  -who  made  t-wo  bales  of  grass 
grow  where  only  one  grew  before  is  a 
public  benefactor,  then  he  who  reduces 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  so  that  only  one 
ear  of  corn  grows  where  two  have  been 
grown  before  is  a  public  curse. 

Agriculture  is  the  fundamental  sup- 
port of  the  American  nation,  and  soil 
fertility  is  the  absolute  support  of  agri- 
culture. 

Without  agriculture,  America  is 
nothing.  The  forest  and  the  earth 
supply  the  timber,  the  stone,  and  the  metal  to  build  and 
equip  railroad  and  factory,  and  the  fuel  to  operate  mill  and 
locomotive,  but  directly  or  indirectly  these  great  industries 
are  absolutely  dependent  on  agriculture  for  their  continued 
existence. 

The  Two  Functions  of  the  Soil— The  soil  has  two  distinct 
functions  to  perform  in  crop  production :  First,  the  soil  must 
furnish  a  home  for  the  plant,  where  the  roots  can  penetrate  the 
earth  upon  which  the  plant  must  stand;  second,  the  soil  must 
furnish  plant  food,  or  nourishment,  for  the  growth,  develop- 
ment, and  maturing  of  the  plant. 

To  improve  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  is  to  improve 
the  home  of  the  plant;  while  to  add  to  the  soil,  or  to  liberate 
from  the  soil  fertilizing  materials,  is  to  increase  the  available 
supply  of  plant  food. 

One  soil  may  furnish  an  excellent  home  for  the  plant,  but  a 
very  insufficient  supply  of  plant  food;  while  another  soil  may 
contain  abundance  of  plant  food,  but  the  physical  conditions 
(such  as  imperfect  drainage,  or  inadequate  aeration)  may  be 
such  as  to  make  an  unfit  lodging  place  for  the  plant. 

'The  Six  Fssential  Factors  in  Crop  Production -^There  are 

six  essential  and  positive  factors  in  crop  production:  (i)  the  seed, 
(2)  the  home  or  lodging  place,  (3)  moisture,  (4)  heat,  (5)  light,  and 

14 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  15 

(6)  plant  food.  Some  negative  factors  are  injury  from  insects 
and  plant  diseases. 

Good  seed  is  exceedingly  important,  and  the  quality  of  the 
seed  selected  and  planted  is  largely  under  the  control  of  the 
farmer. 

By  proper  drainage,  by  the  use  of  organic  matter,  and  by 
proper  tillage,  thus  maintaining  good  physical  conditions,  the 
farmer  may  provide  a  suitable  home  for  the  plant,  remove  sur- 
plus water,  render  the  soil  more  capable  of  absorbing  and  retain- 
ing necessary  moisture,  and  control  the  temperature  to  some 
extent  by  lessening  evaporation  and  by  changing  the  color  of 
the  soil,  as  by  the  addition  of  organic  matter. 

More  than  five  times  as  much  heat  is  required  to  evaporate 
water  from  the  surface  of  the  soil  as  would  be  needed  to  raise 
the  temperature  of  the  same  amount  of  water  from  the  freezing 
to  the  boiling  point.  It  is  because  of  this  that  wet,  poorly 
drained  soils  are  cold.  Dark  soils  absorb  more  heat  and  conse- 
quently are  warmer  than  light  colored  soils. 

Light  is  a  factor  over  which  man  has  no  direct  or  positive 
control,  but  he  has  full  control  over  some  negative  factors, 
such  as  weeds,  which  if  allowed  to  grow  might  largely  prevent 
the  light  from  reaching  the  young  plants.  Indeed,  the  first  and 
greatest  damage  caused  by  weeds  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they 
shut  off  the  light  from  the  growing  plants.  If  the  supply  of 
moisture  or  of  plant  food  is  insufficient  for  both  the  crop  and 
the  weeds,  then  the  weeds  may  rob  the  growing  crop  of  these 
essentials  to  some  extent. 

So-called  nurse  crops,  such  as  oats  or  wheat  when  growing 
with  clover,  may  grow  so  thick  and  rank  as  to  injure  to  a  marked 
extent  the  clover,  by  shutting  out  the  light,  also  by  robbing  the 
clover  plants  of  moisture  and  plant  food.  To  avoid  these  injuries 
or  difficulties,  the  clover  should  be  started  with  a  light  seeding 
of  wheat  or  oats  (about  one  bushel  to  the  acre)  preferably  planted 
in  drills  running  north  and  south,  which  will  permit  the  strong 
midday  light  to  reach  the  clover  plants. 

If  oats  are  seeded  as  the  nurse  crop,  they  should  be  an  early 
maturing  variety,  or,  they  may  be  pastured  off  or  cut  early  for 
oat  hay.  The  surest  method  of  obtaining  a  good  setting  of  clover 
is  to  sow  it  without  a  nurse  crop  and  pasture  the  field  or  clip 
the  weeds  with  a  mower  if  necessary. 

The  least  understood  and  the  most  neglected  essential  factor 
in  crop  production  is  plant  food.  Food  of  required  kinds  and  in 
sufficient  quantity  is  as  necessary  for  plants  as  for  animals;  and 
it  is  even  more  important  to  provide  an  ample  and  balanced 
ration  for  corn  than  for  cattle,  because  cattle  are  usually  able  to 
move  about  and  find  some  food  for  themselves,  while  the  corn 
plants  are  stationary  and  limited  to  the  food  within  reach  of 
their  roots. 


16  FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

The  Ten  Essential  Plant  Food  Elements — There  are  ten 
different  elements  of  plant  food,  each  of  which  is  absolutely 
essential  to  agricultural  plants.  These  elements  are  carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium,  calcium, 
magnesium,  iron,  and  sulphur. 

Carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  which  constitute  more  than 
90  per  cent  of  most  agricultural  plants,  are  contained  in  air  and 
water,  the  supply  being  unlimited.  The  two  elements,  iron  and 
sulphur,  although  absolutely  essential  to  plant  growth,  are 
required  in  very  small  amounts,  while  they  are  provided  by 
nature  in  practically  inexhaustible  quantities. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  five  elements,  nitrogen,  phosphorus, 
potassium,  calcium,  and  magnesium,  are  required  by  plants  in 
very  considerable  amounts,  and  soils  are  frequently  found  which 
are  so  deficient  in  one  or  more  of  these  five  elements  as  to  limit 


The  old  inefficient  -way  of  spreading  manure 

ther  yields  of  crops.  It  should  be  understood  that  soils  are  never 
found  which  are  entirely  devoid  of  these  elements.  Even  the 
poorest  and  most  unproductive  soils  still  contain  at  least  some 
small  supply  of  each  of  these  elements,  and  as  a  general  rule 
such  so-called  exhausted  soils  contain  at  least  one  and  frequently 
two  or  three  of  these  valuable  elements  in  large  amount,  the 
low  productive  capacity  being  due  to  the  deficiency  of  one  or 
two  elements  only. 

Sometimes  the  element  which  the  plant  fails  to  obtain  in 
sufficient  quantity  for  its  normal  growth,  the  element  which 
positively  limits  the  yield  of  the  crop,  is  actually  present  in  the 
soil  in  a  very  large  amount.  In  such  cases  the  practice  should 
not  be  to  add  to  the  soil  more  of  this  plant  food  element,  but 
to  adopt  methods  of  soil  treatment  and  management  by  which 
we  can  liberate  a  sufficient  amount  of  this  element  for  maximum 
profitable  crop  yields.  This  point  will  be  further  discussed  in 
the  pages  following. 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  17 


Nitrogen — The  element  nitrogen  ought  never  to  be  bought 
in  general  livestock  or  grain  farming.  The  atmospheric  pres- 
sure is  fifteen  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  Of  this,  about  twelve 
pounds  pressure  is  due  to  the  nitrogen  contained  in  the  air.  If 
we  compute  the  value  of  this  nitrogen  at  fifteen  cents  a  pound, 
the  price  commonly  paid  for  the  nitrogen  in  commercial  ferti- 
lizers, we  find  about  $11,000,000  worth  of  nitrogen  resting  on 
every  acre  of  the  earth's  surface. 

It  is  true  that  such  crops  as  corn,  oats,  wheat,  timothy,  cot- 
ton and  tobacco  have  no  power  to  make  any  direct  use  of  this 
atmospheric  nitrogen,  but  there  is  a  class  of  plants  known  as 
legumes,  including  such  valuable  agricultural  plants  as  red 
clover,  alsike,  alfalfa,  crimson  clover,  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  vetch, 
etc. ,  upon  the  roots  of  which  there  are  or  should  be  small  nodules 
or  tubercles,  varying  from  the  size  of  pin  heads  upon  clover  roots 


n" 


Manure  exposed  in  this  way  loses  its  fertilizinii 
elements  very  rapidly 


to  that  of  peas  upon  soy  beans,  in  which  live  great  numbers  of 
very  minute  microscopic  organisms  called  bacteria,  which  have 
power  to  take  nitrogen  from  the  air  as  it  enters  the  pores  of  the 
soil,  and  to  cause  this  free  gaseous  nitrogen  to  combine  with 
other  elements  in  suitable  form  for  plant  food  which  is  then 
taken  up  by  the  clover  or  other  legume  for  its  own  growth. 

If  the  roots  and  stubble  are  left  to  decay  in  the  ground,  the 
nitrogen  which  they  contain  becomes  available  for  succeeding 
crops  of  corn  or  other  grains  or  grasses,  but  on  land  of  moderate 
productive  power  the  soil  will  furnish  as  much  nitrogen  to  the 
clover  crop  as  will  be  contained  in  the  roots  and  stubble  after 
the  hay  and  seed  crops  are  harvested.  If  the  entire  legume  crop 
is  plowed  under  as  green  manure,  then  all  of  the  nitrogen  taken 
from  the  air  is  left  in  the  soil  for  succeeding  crops. 

If  the  crops  are  fed  to  animals  provided  with  plenty  of 
absorbent  litter  or  bedding,  as  straw  or  refuse  shredded  corn 
fodder,  so  that  all  liquid  excrement  is  saved,  then  about  75  per 


18  FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

cent  of  the  nitrogen  contained  in  the  feed  may  be  returned  to 
the  land  in  the  farm  manure. 

In  very  intensive  farming,  as  in  market  gardening  near  large 
cities,  if  the  land  is  too  valuable  to  be  given  up  even  for  a  part 
of  a  year  to  the  growing  of  legumes  for  fertilizing  purposes,  then 
it  becomes  necessary  to  apply  nitrogen;  and  this  is  also  profit- 
able, for  the  products  of  one  acre  frequently  bring  $100  or  more 
for  one  season.  In  emergencies,  commercial  nitrogen,  especially 
cotton-seed  meal,  may  well  be  used  for  cotton,  because  of  its 
high  value  per  acre;  but,  as  a  rule,  farm  manure  or  legumes  as 
green  manures,  could  be  substituted  with  greater  profit  in  the 
long  run. 

Where  it  can  be  obtained,  stable  manure  is  usually  the  most 
economical  and  satisfactory  form  in  which  to  apply  nitrogen  in 
market  gardening,  although  cotton  seed  or  cotton-seed  meal, 
dried  blood,  tankage,  sodium  nitrate,  and  ammonia  sulphate  are 
also  used  with  profit  at  times. 

Phosphorus— If  the  element  phosphorus  becomes  deficient 
in  the  soil,  the  total  supply  can  be  increased  only  by  making  an 
actual  application  of  some  kind  of  material  containing  phos- 
phorus. ■ 

It  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  about  three-fourths  of  the 
phosphorus  required  for  ordinary  grain  crops  is  stored  in  the 
seed  or  grain,  while  only  one-fourth  remains  in  the  straw  or 
stalks.  Consequently,  when  corn  or  wheat  is  sold  from  the  farm, 
three-fourths  of  the  phosphorus  required  to  produce  the  crop 
leaves  the  farm  in  the  grain. 

When  the  crops  are  fed  to  growing  animals  or  milch  cows, 
about  one-fourth  of  the  phosphorus  contained  in  the  feed  is 
retained  in  the  bones,  flesh,  and  milk,  while  about  three-fourths 
is  returned  in  the  manure. 

The  total  phosphorus  content  of  the  soil  on  any  given  farm 
may  be  increased  by  the  purchase  of  stable  manure,  or  by  using 
manure  made  from  purchased  feeds,  especially  from  grains  or 
other  concentrates,  as  bran,  oil  meal,  or  gluten  feed;  or  we  may 
purchase  steamed  bone  meal  from  the  stockyards  companies  who 
buy  our  cattle,  slag  phosphate  from  the  steel  works— .if  the  slag 
contains  sufficient  phosphorus  to  make  it  valuable— or  natural 
rock  phosphate  direct  from  the  extensive  natural  phosphate 
deposits  in  Tennessee,  South  Carolina,  or  Florida,  where  this 
mineral  is  being  mined  and  ground  in  large  amounts.  It  may 
be  noted  that  the  original  stock  of  phosporus  naturallj'^  in  the 
soil  is  powdered  rock  phosphate. 

Potassium — Potassium,  like  phosphorus,  is  a  mineral  ele- 
ment contained  in  the  soil,  and  if  the  supply  in  the  soil  is 
deficient  it  can  be  increased  only  by  a  direct  application  to  the 
Soil  of  some  material.    As  a  matter  of  fact,  aside  from  peaty 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  19 

swamp  lands  and  some  very  sandy  lands,  the  potassium  contained 
in  most  soils  is  practically  inexhaustible. 

Of  course  the  stalks,  which  are  rich  in  potassium,  should  be 
returned  to  the  soil,  either  directly  or  in  manure.  Even  if  they 
are  burned  (which  should  be  the  exception  and  not  the  rule)  the 
potassium  remains  in  the  ash. 

Peaty  swamp  soils  are  frequently  exceedingly  deficient  in  both 
available  and  total  potassium  as  compared  with  normal  soils, 
and,  where  the  supply  of  farm  manure  is  limited,  commercial 
potassium  salts  may  be  applied  to  such  land  with  very  great 
profit.  Potassium  sulphate  and  potassium  chloride  (frequently, 
though  incorrectly,  called  muriate  of  potash)  are  the  most 
economical  and  satisfactory  commercial  potassium  fertilizers. 

Kainit  is  sometimes  used,  but  it  contains  only  10  per  cent  of 
potassium  while  potassium  sulphate  usually  contains  40  per  cent, 
and  potassium  chloride  contains  about  42  per  cent  of  the  element 
potassium. 

About  200  pounds  of  potassium  sulphate  or  potassium  chloride 
will  supply  sufficient  potassium  for  a  hundred-bushel  crop  of 
corn,  and  on  very  peaty  land,  where  corn  will  not  grow,  such  an 
application  is  recommended.  The  subsequent  applications  may 
be  reduced  in  accordance  with  the  amounts  of  potassium 
returned  in  the  stalks  and  in  the  farm  manure  made  from  feed- 
ing the  crop.  But  in  dealing  with  soils  of  low  productive  capac- 
ity, of  whatsoever  class,  it  must  be  remembered  that  we  must 
first  grow  large  crops  before  we  can  make  large  amounts  of 
manure,  and  if  necessary  we  must  always  be  ready  to  supple- 
ment our  farm  manure  with  any  needed  plant  food  if  it  can  be 
obtained  and  used  with  profit. 

Because  soils  deficient  in  potassium  are  usually  abnormal  and 
exist  only  in  restricted  areas,  this  class  of  soils  will  not  be  further 
considered  except  to  mention  in  this  connection  that  where  such 
soils  are  found,  as  in  some  swamp  regions,  then  the  addition  of 
potassium  frequently  produces  most  astonishing  increases  in 
crop  yields.  This  is  well  illustrated  by  the  results  obtained  on 
the  University  of  Illinois  soil  experiment  field  near  Momence, 
Illinois,  in  the  Kankakee  swamp  area. 

Crop  Yields  in  Soil  Experiments 
Peaty  Swamp  Land  near  Momence,  Illinois 


Plant  Food  Applied 


None 

Nitrogen . . . 
Phosphorus 
Potassium  _ 


Nitrogen,  phosphorus 

Nitrogen,  potassium 

Phosphorus,  potassium 

Nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium 


1903  Corn 

Yield  per  Acre 

7  bu. 

4  bu. 

5  bu. 

73  bu. 

4  bu. 

71  bu. 

73  bu. 

67  bu. 

20  FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

It  will  be  seen  that  potassium  increased  the  yield  of  corn  by 
more  than  sixty  bushels  to  the  acre.  It  should  be  understood 
that  some  soils  which  are  peaty  in  the  surface  with  a  heavier 
clayey  subsoil  within  reach  of  the  plow  can  be  improved  merely 
by  deep  plowing,  for  the  clayey  material  is  usually  rich  in 
potassium.  It  sometimes  occurs  that  a  subsoil  exists  which 
contains  considerable  amounts  of  total  potassium,  but  this  may 
become  available  slowly  unless  more  actively  decaying  organic 
matter  than  peat  is  present.  In  such  cases  even  light  applica- 
tions of  fresh  farm  manure  may  produce  an  effect  far  exceeding 
that  which  is  commonly  expected. 

Occasionally  peaty  swamp  soils,  like  other  soils,  may  contain 
some  injurious  alkali,  as  magnesium  carbonate,  in  the  sub-sur- 
face soil  in  such  amounts  as  to  prevent  corn  roots  from  living 
in  it,  and  hence  liberal  amounts  of  available  potassium  provided 
in  the  surface  soil  may  greatly  benefit  the  crop.  Deep  peat  and 
peat  underlaid  by  clean  sand  are,  as  a  rule,  deficient  in  both 
available  and  total  potassium. 

It  is  well  to  remember  that  the  seed  or  grain  contains  only 
about  one-fourth  of  the  potassium  required  for  a  crop,  while  three- 
fourths  remains  in  the  straw  or  stalks;  also  that  animals  retain 
practically  none  of  the  potassium  consumed  in  the  food,  almost 
all  of  this  element  being  returned  in  the  solid  and  liquid  manure. 

Calcium—As  an  average,  the  normal  soils  of  central  United 
States  contain  only  one-third  as  much  calcium  as  potassium; 
while  the  average  annual  loss  of  calcium  in  drainage  waters  and 
in  crops  removed  amounts  to  five  or  six  times  as  much  as  the 
loss  of  potassium;  so  that  in  the  maintenance  of  plant  food  the 
addition  of  calcium  in  limestone  is  of  very  much  greater  impor- 
tance than  is  the  application  of  potassium  to  the  almost  inex- 
haustible supply  now  present  in  such  soils. 

Magnesium  —  The  amount  of  magnesium  required  by  crops 
is  appreciable,  but  not  nearly  so  large  as  of  the  other  four  ele- 
ments mentioned.  Magnesium  can  be  applied  most  cheaply  and 
in  readily  available  form  by  using  dolomitic  limestone.  Dolomite 
contains  about  as  much  magnesium  as  calcium,  and  has  slightly 
greater  power  to  correct  soil  acidity  than  the  ordinary  high 
calcium  limestone. 

Making  Plant  Food  Available  —  Ixi  is  an  absolute  essential 
in  agriculture  to  have  plant  food  in  the  soil.  If  it  is  not  present 
in  abundance  it  should  be  supplied  in  the  manner  that  is  most 
economical  and  profitable,  and  .that  which  is  removed  in  crops 
should  be  replaced  so  far  as  practicable  and  profitable,  either  by 
returning  it  in  farm  manure,  or  by  plowing  under  green  manures, 
corn  stalks,  straw,  and  other  coarse  products,  and  by  adding 
phosphate  and  limestone. 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  21 

With  a  good  supply  of  plant  food  stored  in  the  soil,  then  the 
thing  of  greatest  importance  in  the. business  of  farming  is 
the  liberation  of  sufficient  plant  food  during  the  growing  season 
to  meet  the  needs  of  maximum  profitable  crops.  While  thorough 
tillage  aids  in  this  process,  by  far  the  most  effective  and  practical 
means  within  the  farmers'  own  control  for  liberating  plant  food 
from  the  soil's  supply  or  from  insoluble  material,  as  natural  rock 
phosphate  which  may  have  been  applied,  is  decaying  vegetable 
matter. 

The  farmer  or  landowner  whose  farm  practice  includes  these 
two  points;  that  is,  (1)  plenty  of  plant  food  stored  in  the  soil,  or 
added  to  it  when  necessary,  and  (2)  plenty  of  decaying  organic 
matter  to  liberate  plant  food  for  the  crop  needs— will  have  in 
operation  a  system  of  agriculture  which  is  permanent. 

The  one  point  is  no  more  important  or  essential  than  the 
other.  The  man  who  tries  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  his  soil 
and  who  hopes  to  continue  to  grow  large,  profitable  grain  crops 
without  the  use  of  legume  crops  or  plowing  under  farm  manures 
or  coarse  products,  but  who  uses  high-priced  soluble  manufac- 
tured conimerical  fertilizers,  is  unwise,  and  ultimately  his  land 
will  probably  follow  the  history  of  the  lands  which  have  been 
practically  ruined  by  such  practice  in  the  eastern  states. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  man,  who  thinks  the  productive 
capacity  of  the  ordinary  prairie  land  in  the  humid  regions  of 
Central  United  States  can  be  permanently  maintained  merely 
by  the  use  of  clover  in  crop  rotation,  is  also  unwise,  for  this  is 
absolutely  impossible.  So  far  as  phosphorus  and  other  minerals 
are  concerned,  the  use  of  clover  in  crop  rotation  is  one  of  our 
most  effective  means  of  liberating  those  plant  food  elements 
from  the  soil  so  that  they  may  be  removed  in  subsequent  grain 
crops.  Furthermore,  clover  and  other  legumes  are  themselves 
gross  feeders  on  phosphorus,  calcium,  and  potassium. 

It  is  almost  inexplicable  that  there  are  people  who  write  and 
speak  at  great  length  and  with  great  energy  on  the  tremendous 
importance  of  adding  nitrogen  to  the  soil  as  an  element  of  plant 
food,  but  who  completely  ignore  and  even  deprecate  the  matter 
of  maintaining  in  the  soil  a  supply  of  phosphorus  from  which 
we  can  liberate  sufficient  amounts  for  large  crops. 

No  man  can  afford  to  ignore  the  truth.  If  there  are  soils 
which  contain  so  little  phosphorus  that  we  cannot  by  profitable 
means  liberate  sufficient  to  meet  the  requirements  of  large 
crops,  then  we  should  increase  the  supply;  and  every  man  should 
be  sufficiently  unprejudiced  to  ask  frankly  whether  it  is  more 
sensible  and  more  profitable  positively  to  increase  the  total  sup- 
ply of  any  element  of  plant  food  in  his  soil,  or  to  continue  to 
decrease  it  by  means  of  crop  rotation  and  the  use  of  decaying 
organic  matter. 

For  the  ordinary,  strictly  livestock  farm  from  which  only 


22  FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

hogs  and  cattle  are  sold,  there  is  no  such  thing-  as  reducing  the 
supply  of  potassium  if  all  liquid  and  solid  manure  is  carefully 
saved  and  returned  to  the  soil,  because,  as  before  stated,  practi- 
cally all  of  the  potassium  contained  in  the  feed  is  returned  in 
the  manure.  In  dairy  farming  a  small  amount  of  potassium 
leaves  the  farm  if  milk  is  sold. 

But  even  in  livestock  farming  v^^ith  all  manure  saved  and 
returned  to  the  land,  we  still  lose  the  phosphorus  carried  away 
in  bones,  flesh,  and  milk,  and  this  fact  should  not  be  ignored  by 
the  farmer  whose  crop  yields  are  already  limited  because  of 
insufficient  supplies  of  phosphorus,  even  with  abundant  use  of 
decaying  organic  matter  supplied  in  clover  and  farm  manure. 
Indeed,  not  infrequently  we  find  farmers  whose  land  is  so  rich  in 
nitrogen  and  potassium  that  they  grow  great  crops  of  straw  and 
stalks,  but  the  phosphorus  is  so  limited  that  the  actual  yield  of 
grain  produced  is  only  one-half  or  two-thirds  what  it  should  be. 


A  practice  'which  is  not  lollovred  by  the  best  fanners 

Let  us  remember  that  a  balanced  ration  is  just  as  important  for 
corn  as  for  cattle,  and  that  phosphorus  is  required  largely  for 
the  grain. 

Soils  Deficient  in  Nitrogen — It  should  be  understood  that 
the  nitrogen  in  the  soil  is  measured  by  the  organic  matter,  for 
the  nitrogen  is  practically  all  contained  in  the  organic  matter. 
Consequently  soils  which  are  deficient  in  organic  matter  are  also 
deficient  in  nitrogen. 

There  are  two  classes  of  soils  which  are  commonly  much  more 
deficient  in  nitrogen  than  in  other  plant  foods.  These  are  the 
very  sandy  soils  and  the  very  rolling  or  steeply  sloping  hill 
lands. 

Improving  Sandy  Land— While  the  sandy  lands  are  not 
rich  in  phosphorus  and  potassium,  they  are  as  a  rule  moderately 
well  supplied  with  those  elements,  and  such  soils  are  so  porous 
that  they  afford  a  very  deep  feeding  range  for  the  plant  roots,  so 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


23 


that  the  actual  percentage  composition  in  mineral  plant  food 
does  not  fully  measure  the  possible  productive  capacity  of  sandy 
soils  as  compared  with  more  compact  silt  or  clay  soils. 

As  a  general  rule  if  the  three  elements,  nitrogen,  phosphorus, 
and  potassium,  be  added  separately  to  three  different  plots 
of  very  sandy  land,  the  nitrogen  will  increase  the  yield,  while 
little  or  no  increase  will  be  produced  by  either  phosphorus  or 
potassium.  After  plenty  of  nitrogen  has  been  provided,  then 
the  addition  of  potassium  will  still  further  increase  the  yield. 
Actual  results  obtained  on  the  University  of  Illinois  soil  experi- 
ment field  on  the  sandy  land,  will  serve  to  illustrate  this: 

Crop  Yields  in  Soil  Experiments 
Sandy  Soil  near  Green  Valley,  Illinois 


Soil  Treatment  Applied 

1902 

Corn 

Bushels 

1903 

Corn 

Bushels 

1904 

Oats 

Bushels 

1905 
Wheat 
Bushels 

1906 

Corn 

Bu. 

1909 
Corn 
Bu. 

Nitrogen 

Phosphorus 

69 
30 
23 
57 
70 

65 
25 
20 
70 
73 

44 
20 
17 
52 
55 

24 
17 
17 

27 
37 

63 
10 
8 
71 
75 

59 
13 

Potassium 

13 

Nitrogen,  phosphorus 
Nitrogen,  potassium. 

65 
74 

It  will  be  noted  that  where  nitrogen  was  applied,  the  yield  is 
more  than  double  that  obtained  with  either  of  the  other  elements. 
Except  in  1902,  phosphorus  shows  some  effect  when  added  to 
nitrogen,  but  potassium  with  nitrogen  is  more  effective,  especially 
in  1905,  when  it  gave  a  yield  of  wheat  thirteen  bushels  higher 
than  was  obtained  with  nitrogen  alone.  It  should  be  stated, 
perhaps,  that  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  select  a  number  of 
exactly  uniform  plots  for  experimental  use  on  this  kind  of  soil 
and  small  differences  may  be  attributed  to  soil  variation,  but  the 
marked  and  uniform  effects  of  nitrogen,  and  of  nitrogen  with 
potassium,  are  characteristic  of  such  soil,  and  the  further  addi- 
tion of  phosphorus  may  sometimes  prove  profitable. 

These  results  help  to  explain  the  marked  effect  of  farm  manure 
on  sandy  soils,  especially  when  used  for  a  crop  rotation  which 
includes  legumes.  Both  the  legumes  and  manure  will  furnish 
nitrogen,  and  the  manure  is  also  well  supplied  with  potassium, 
the  bedding  being  rich  in  potassium,  and  all  potassium  in  the 
feed  being  returned  in  the  manure.  It  may  be  noted  that  on 
very  sandy  lands  clover  does  not  grow  well,  but  either  cowpeas 
or  soy  beans  is  an  excellent  substitute  for  clover,  as  both  do  well 
on  very  sa^ndy  soil. 

It  is  exceedingly  important  that  so  far  as  possible  all  crops 
shall  be  fed  and  the  manure  shall  be  carefully  saved  and  re- 
turned to  such  land,  not  only  for  its  plant  food  value,  but  also 
for  the  organic  matter  which  is  needed  to  improve  the  physical 
condition  of  the  soiL 


24 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


Improving  Worn  Hill  Land— In  actual  field  experiments 
on  worn  hill  land  on  the  University  of  Illinois  soil  experiment 
field,  the  following  results  have  been  obtained  in  a  three-year 
rotation  of  w^heat,  corn,  and  cowpeas.  By  "legume"  treatment 
is  meant  the  grovt^ing  of  legume  crops  or  catch  crops,  as  cowpeas 
in  the  corn,  or  after  the  wheat,  in  the  same  season,  which  are 
turned  under  for  the  nitrogen  and  organic  matter  which  they 
add  to  the  soil. 

Crop  Yields  in  Soil  Experiments 
Worn  Hill  Land  near  Vienna,  Illinois 


Soil  Treatment  Applied 


1903         1904         1905 
Yields    Yields    Yields 


Wheat,  Bushels  per  Acre 

None 

Legume 

Legume,  limestone , _• 

Legume,  limestone,  phosphorus 

Legume,  limestone,  phosphorus,  potassium.. 

Corn,  Bushels  per  Acre 

None 

Legume 

Legume,  limestone . 

Legume,  limestone,  phosphorus 

Legume,  limestone,  phosphorus,  potassium  . . 


0 

7 

1 

1 

1 

10 

8 

15 

11 

18 

1 
11 

18 
26 
30 


9 

31 

5 

36 

8 

49 

7 

49 

11 

45 

38 
43 
62 
57 
57 


The  year  1903  was  a  very  poor  season  for  both  corn  and  wheat. 
It  will  be  seen  that  limestone  and  legumes  (cowpeas  or  clover) 
have  very  great  power  to  improve  this  class  of  soils. 

As  yet  the  addition  of  phosphorus  and  potassium  has  not 


Saving  labor  and  getting  the  best  out  of  the  manure 


increased  the  corn  yields,  although  with  wheat,  phosphorus  has 
given  a  marked  increase  and  potassium  some  further  gain,  not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  these  two  best  treated  plot  series 
were  naturally  slightly  less  productive  than  the  other  three 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


25 


of  the  series.    With  more  organic  matter  the  effect  of  applied 
potassium  will  probably  disappear. 

Soils  Deficient  in  Phosphorus— Phosphorus  is  the  element 
of  plant  food  most  likely  to  be  deficient  in  the  common  gently 
rolling  prairie  or  upland  timber  soils  of  Central  United  States. 
Phosphorus  is  also  commonly  found  to  be  one  of  the  most  deficient 
plant  foods  in  long  cultivated  soils  in  eastern  and  southern 
United  States. 

The  total  amount  of  phosphorus  contained  in  the  surface 
seven  inches  of  the  commonest  type  of  soil  in  the  Illinois  corn 
belt  is  no  more  than  would  be  required  for  fifty  crops  of  corn  of 
100  bushels  each,  or  for  about  seventy  such  crops  if  the  grain 
only  were  removed  from  the  land.  The  next  soil  stratum  is 
poorer  in  phosphorus  than  the  surface  soil  and  even  a  rich  sub- 
soil is  of  little  value  when  buried  beneath  a  worn-out  surface. 

The  common  so-called  worn-out  soil  of  southern  Illinois  con- 
tains but  little  more  than  half  as  much  phosphorus  as  the  corn 
belt  soil.  If  clover  failure  is  becoming  more  frequent  than 
formerly,  it  is  one  of  the  strong  evidences  of  insufficient  phos- 
phorus. 

The  results  obtained  on  the  typical  slightly  rolling  prairie 
land  of  the  central  Illinois  corn  belt  will  serve  to  demonstrate 
that  phosphorus  is  the  element  which  limits  crop  yields  on 
soils  of  this  character,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  this  soil 
is  valued  at  not  less  than  $150  an  acre  and  is  still  producing 
very  profitable  crops  even  for  land  of  that  valuation. 

Crop  Yields  in  Soil  Experiments 
Typical  Corn  Belt  Prairie  Soil  near  Bloomington,  Illinois 


Plant  Food  Applied 


1903 

Corn 

Bushels 


1904 

Oats 

Bushels 


1905 
Wheat 
Bushels 


None 

Nitrogen  ... 
Phosphorus. 
Potassium . . 


60 
60 
73 
56 


61 
70 
73 
63 


29 
31 
39 
33 


Nitrogen,  phosphorus 

Nitrogen,  potassium 

Phosphorus,  potassium 

Nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium. 


78 
59 
75 

81 


85 
66 
70 
91 


51 
30 
38 
52 


Gain  for  phosphorus  when  added  to  ni- 
trogen  . .    -     


18 


15 


20 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  addition  of  nitrogen  or  potassium, 
separately  or  together,  produces  little  benefit  and  sometimes 
the  effect  is  a  decrease  in  yield,  although  nitrogen  did  appre- 
ciably increase  the  yield  of  oats  in  1904.  After  phosphorus  has 
been  applied,  then  nitrogen  can  be  utilized  with  marked  benefit. 


26 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


Phosphorus  produced  a  large  increase  in  each  crop  even  when 
applied  alone,  but  when  applied  after  nitrogen  the  increase  was 
exceedingly  marked,  amounting  to  18  bushels  increase  in  corn,  15, 
in  oats,  and  20  bushels  increase  in  the  yield  of  wheat.  While 
nitrogen  was  applied  in  commercial  form  (dried  blood)  in  these 
experiments,  these  results  emphasize  the  very  great  importance 
of  using  phosphorus  in  connection  with  clover  and  farm  manure 
for  improving  this  soil. 

The  use  of  commercial  nitrogen  was  discontinued  after  1905, 
but  the  addition  of  phosphorus  produced  1.07  tons  more  clover 
in  1906, 19  bushels  more  corn  in  1907,  12.2  bushels  more  corn  in 
1908,  and  10.2  bushels  more  oats  in  1909. 

The  possible  effect  of  phosphorus  on  the  clover  crop  itself 
may  be  seen  in  the  results  obtained  in  1905  on  the  University  of 
Illinois  soil  experiment  field  at  Urbana,  Illinois,  which  is  also 
situated  on  good  Illinois  prairie  soil.    By  "legume"  treatment 


Where  both  labor  and  fertility  are  'vvasted 

is  meant  the  growing  of  a  catch  crop  of  cowpeas  or  clover  in 
the  corn  when  it  is  "laid  by." 

Crop  Yields  in  Soil  Experiments 
Typical  Corn  Belt  Prairie  Soil,  near  Urbana,  Illinois 


Soil 
Plot 
No. 


Three  Years' 
Average  Before 

Treatment 
Corn,  Bushels 


60 
64 
63 
61 
61 


Aver. 
61.8 
Bu. 


64 
62 
58 
61 
62 


Aver. 
61.4 
Bu. 


Soil  Treatment  Applied 


None . 

Legume 

None 

Legume,  lime _ . 

Lime 

Legume,  lime,  phosphorus.. 

Lime,  phosphorus. 
Legume,  lime,  phos.,  potass. 

Lime,  phos.,  potass. 
Lime,  phos.,  potass. 


1905 

Clover 

Tons  per  Acre 

1.26^ 

1.21 

Aver. 

L15 

^    1.23 

1.32 

Tons 

1.21  J 

2.91  ^ 

2.91 

Aver. 

3.19 

^    3.12 

3.19 

Tons 

3.41 

FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  27 

It  will  be  seen  that  previous  to  the  beginning  of  this  soil 
treatment,  the  last  live  plots  yielded  no  more  than  the  first  five ; 
but  after  four  years  of  soil  treatment,  the  yield  of  clover  was 
only  1.23  tons  without  phosphorus,  while  3.12  tons  of  well  field- 
cured  clover  hay  were  produced  where  phosphorus  had  been 
applied.    The  effect  of  potassium  was  slight. 

Of  course  this  increased  crop  of  clover  means  a  larger  yield 
of  corn  to  follow,  and  both  clover  and  corn  mean  more  farm 
manure  for  further  soil  improvement  or  maintenance. 

As  an  average  of  the  three  years,  1907  to  1909,  plots  six  and 
seven  produced  seventeen  and  one-half  bushels  more  corn,  seven 
bushels  more  oats,  1720  pounds  more  clover  hay,  and  forty-three 
pounds  more  clover  seed,  per  acre,  than  plots  four  and  five; 
these  increases  being  due  to  the  application  of  phosphorus.  In 
the  later  years  the  use  of  limestone  is  also  producing  profitable 
increases  on  the  older  prairie  lands  of  the  corn  belt. 

Soils  Deficient  in  Both  Phosphorus  and  L.inie  —  Soils  on 
which  clover  can  not  be  grown  successfully  even  before  they  are 
badly  worn  are  usually  acid  and  consequently  deficient  in  lime- 
stone, but  as  a  matter  of  fact  such,  soils  are  usually  deficient  in 
both  limestone  and  phosphorus. 

The  effect  of  limestone  and  of  limestone  and  phosphorus  in 
connection  with  legume  treatment  on  the  University  of  Illinois 
soil  experiment  field,  will  serve  to  demonstrate  the  need  of  both 
limestone  and  phosphorus  on  such  soils  as  are  commonly  called 
"clay  land,"  which  refuses  to  grow  clover. 

Wheat  Yields  in  Soil  Experiments 
Typical  Wheat  Belt  Prairie  Soil  in  "Egypt,"  near  Odin, 

Illinois 


Soil  Treatment  Applied 


None 

Legume --_ 

Legume,  limestone . 

Legume,  limestone,  phosphorus  . 

Legume,  limsetone,  phosphorus,  potassium 


Yield  per  Acre 

Average  fo 

Eight  Years 


11  bu. 
12«  bu. 
17  bu. 
26  bu. 

28  bu. 


Gain  for  legume,  limestone,  phosphorus  treatment        15  bu 


On  similar  soil  in  Wayne  county  in  southern  Illinois,  an 
experiment  field  was  started  on  forty  acres  of  land  in  1905.  A 
four-year  rotation  of  wheat,  clover,  corn,  and  cowpeas  (or  soy 
beans)  is  practiced  on  four  ten-acre  fields,  so  that  each  crop  may 
be  represented  every  year.  Two  tons  of  ground  limestone  and 
one  ton  of  fine  ground  raw  rock  phosphate,  per  acre,  are  applied 


28  FOB  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

once  in  four  years  on  part  of  each  field,  while  no  limestone  or 
phosphate  are  applied  to  the  remainder,  which  is  cropped  and 
treated  alike  in  all  other  respects.  At  $1.25  per  ton  for  the 
limestone  and  $7.50  per  ton  for  the  phosphate,  the  cost  of  these 
materials  amounts  to  $10.00  per  acre  once  in  four  years;  whereas, 
in  1910  the  land  treated  with  limestone  and  phosphate  produced 
17  bushels  more  wheat,  2i  tons  more  clover  (in  two  cutting's),  19 
bushels  more  corn,  and  nearly  8  bushels  more  soy  beans,  per 
acre,  than  the  land  not  so  treated.  Here  is  very  satisfactory 
profit  and  positive  soil  enrichment.  Still  greater  benefit  is 
expected  in  the  future,  because  hereafter  the  manure  applied,  or 
the  clover  and  crop  residues  to  be  plowed  under,  will  be  in 
proportion  to  the  crop  yields  of  the  previous  rotation. 

The  treatment  recommended  for  these  soils,  which  are  well 
represented  by  the  extensive  worn  "clay  lands"  in  Ohio,  Indiana, 
southern  Illinois  ("Egypt"),  and  Missouri,  is  as  follows: 

Apply  1,000  to  2,000  pounds  to  the  acre  of  finely  ground 
natural  rock  phosphate  with  as  much  organic  matter  as  possible 
(manure,  legume  crops,  etc.,)  and  plow  under,  then  apply  two 
or  three  tons  to  the  acre  of  ground  natural  limestone  and  mix 
with  the  surface  soil  in  preparing  the  seed  bed,  and  then  grow 
a  good  rotation  of  crops,  such  as  wheat,  clover,  corn,  and  cow- 
peas;  or  wheat,  clover,  wheat,  clover,  corn  and  cowpeas;  or 
corn,  cowpeas,  wheat,  meadow  and  pasture  (clover  and  timothy 
being  seeded  with  the  wheat  crop  for  two  or  three  years' 
meadow  and  pasture).  At  the  end  of  the  rotation  another 
heavy  application  of  rock  phosphate  in  connection  with  all 
available  farm  manure,  should  be  made,  preferably  to  the  pasture 
ground  and  plowed  under  for  corn.  ' 

If  necessary,  limestone  must  be  added  occasionally  to  keep 
the  soil  sweet.  About  two  tons  per  acre  every  rotation  will  be 
sufiicient.  (Blue  litmus  paper,  which  can  be  obtained  from  a 
drug  store,  if  placed  in  contact  with  the  moist  soil  for  20 
minutes  will  be  turned  red  if  the  soil  is  sour). 

The.  Value  of  Farm  Manure  —  Farm  manure  always  has 
been  and  probably  always  will  be  one  of  the  most  important  and 
abundant  materials  for  soil  improvement.  It  is  a  necessary 
product  on  every  farm  and  on  stock  farms  a  product  which 
accumulates  in  very  large  amounts.  If  not  used  for  soil  im- 
provement, it  becomes  a  worthless  nuisance  about  the  stables, 
whether  in  the  city  or  in  the  country. 

A  conservative  estimate  places  the  annual  production  of 
farm  manure  in  the  United  States  at  a  billion  tons.  The  actual 
agricultural  value  of  fresh  farm  manure  containing  both  the 
liquid  and  solid  excrements  is  not  less  than  $2  a  ton,  whether 
the  value  is  measured  in  terms  of  plant  food  elements  actually 
contained  in  the  manure  as  determined  by  chemical  analysis  of 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE. SOUTH  29 

the  manure  and  the  market  values  of  the  elements,  or  whether 
the  value  is  measured  by  the  actual  increase  in  crop  yields  pro- 
duced by  the  use  of  the  manure  on  ordinary  long  cultivated 
soils. 

Waste  of  Farm  Manure  and  Land  Ruin  — If  fresh  farm 
manure  is  thrown  out  and  exposed  to  the  weather  for  six  months 
in  summer,  one-half  of  its  total  weight  of  dry  matter  is  lost,  and 
more  than  one-half  of  its  value  as  a  fertilizer  is  lost.  In  most 
newer  countries  there  is  enormous  and  shameful  if  not  wicked 
waste  of  farm  manure.  In  older  countries  it  is  the  rule  to  save 
all  possible  farm  manure  with  very  great  care,  although  this 
rule  is  too  frequently  broken  by  the  careless,  ignorant,  or  short- 
sighted. 

As  a  whole,  the  unnecessary  waste  and  loss  of  farm  manure 
which  occurs  in  the  United  States  each  year  is  equal  in  value  to 


A  uniform  application  of  manure  insures  better  returns 

several  times  the  value  of  all  commercial  fertilizers  used  in  this 
country.  Sometimes  the  waste  of  farm  manure  and  the  purchase 
of  commercial  fertilizers  occur  upon  the  same  farm.  In  such 
cases  the  commercial  fertilizer  used  is  usually  a  so-called  "com- 
plete" fertilizer,  containing  acid  phosphate  with  a  trace  of 
nitrogen  and  potassium  too  small  to  add  appreciably  to  its  value, 
and  it  is  commonly  applied  in  amounts  which  supply  less  plant 
food  than  the  crops  actually  remove,  the  small  amount  of  soluble 
plant  food  applied  being  supplemented  by  that  which  the  soil 
would  naturally  give  up,  together  with  what  can  be  forced  from 
the  soil  by  the  stimulating  action  of  the  soluble  corrosive  acid 
salts  and  manufactured  land-plaster  contained  in  such  fertilizers. 
One  of  the  most  common  commercial  fertilizers  used  in  the 
United  States  contains  the  equivalent  of  two  per  cent  of  am- 
monia, eight  per  cent  of  falsely  so-called  "phosphoric  acid,"  and 
two  per  cent  of  potash,  corresponding  to  less  than  four  pounds 
of  nitrogen,  seven  pounds  of  phosphorus,  and  less  than  four 


30  FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

pounds  of  potassium  in  200  pounds,  the  most  common  applica- 
tion per  acre;  whereas  a  100-bushel  crop  of  corn  removes  from 
the  soil  not  four,  but  150  pounds  of  nitrogen,  not  seven  but 
twenty-three  pounds  of  phosphorus,  and  not  four  but  seventy- 
five  pounds  of  potassium. 

Saving  Farm  Manure  — In  order  to  retain  the  full  amount 
and  full  value  of  farm  manure,  it  should  be  removed  directly 
from  the  stall  or  covered  feed  lot  and  spread  at  once  upon  the 
land.  Where  the  winters  are  moderately  cold  and  free  from 
heavy  rains  there  is  little  loss  if  the  manure  is  allowed  to  accumu- 
late during  such  weather  in  a  small,  uncovered  feed  lot,  pro- 
vided it  is  hauled  out  and  spread  upon  the  land  in  the  early 
spring.  Manure  may  be  allowed  to  accumulate  without  much 
loss  in  deep  stalls  for  several  weeks  if  plenty  of  absorbent  bed- 
ding is  used,  and  then  it  may  be  hauled  from  the  stall  directly 
to  the  field  and  spread. 

It  should  be  the  rule  never  to  handle  manure  more  than 
once.  When  taken  from  the  stable  or  feeding  shed  it  should  be 
at  once  loaded  onto  the  spreader  and  hauled  to  the  field.  If 
manure  is  produced  at  the  rate  of  two  loads  or  more  a  week,  the 
convenience  and  importance  of  taking  this  manure  directly 
from  the  stable  and  spreading  it  at  once  upon  the  field  will  cer- 
tainly justify  providing  a  manure  spreader  or  special  wagon  to 
be  used  solely  for  this  purpose. 

Increasing  the  Value  of  Farm  Manure  —  While  ordinary 
fresh  farm  manure  is  worth  $2  a  ton  for  use  on  ordinary  soils,  its 
value  can  easily  be  increased  to  $3  a  ton  net,  by  replacing  in 
liberal  amounts  of  low-priced,  very  finely  ground,  natural  rock 
phosphate,  the  element  phosphorus,  which  the  animals  have 
extracted  from  the  feed  and  used  in  making  bone,  thus  leaving 
the  manure  poor  in  phosphorus  as  compared  with  the  crops 
grown  and  fed. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  practically  all  potassium  con- 
tained in  the  feed  is  returned  in  the  liquid  arid  solid  excrements 
and  that  the  nitrogen,  which  is  in  part  retained  by  the  animal 
and  in  part  returned  in  the  manure,  can  be  fully  maintained  by 
supplementing  the  farm  manure  with  clover  grown  in  the  crop 
rotations  and  plowed  under. 

By  far  the  most  complete  and  valuable  work  ever  reported 
upon  the  subject  of  increasing  the  value  of  farm  manure  by  the 
addition  of  natural  rock  phosphate  has  been  done  by  the  Ohio 
agricultural  experiment  station  under  the  direction  of  Professor 
Charles  E.  Thorne  in  an  extensive  and  most  trustworthy  series 
of  experiments  extending  over  a  period  of  thirteen  years. 

As  a  rule  for  use  on  land  which  is  deficient  in  phosphorus, 
rock  phosphate  should  be  mixed  with  average  manure  in  such 
proportions  that  at  least  250  pounds  of  rock  phosphate  per  acre 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


31 


would  be  provided  for  each  year.  Thus  for  a  four-year  rotation, 
including  corn  for  two  years,  oats  for  the  third  year  and  clover 
for  the  fourth  year,  about  1,000  pounds  of  rock  phosphate  an  acre 
should  be  applied  to  the  clover  ground  in  connection  with  all 
available  farm  manure  and  plowed  under  for  corn.  If  the  land 
is  manured  once  in  four  years  with  ten  loads  of  manure  to  the 
acre,  then  100  pounds  of  rock  phosphate  should  be  applied  with 
each  load. 

A  very  simple  and  satisfactory  method  of  applying  rock  phos- 
phate to  the  land,  which  involves  practically  no  extra  labor  or 
loss  of  time,  is  to  load  the  manure  spreader  part  full  of  manure, 
then  scatter  one  hundred  pounds  of  rock  phosphate  over  it  as 


♦  * 

^           J 

s 

i 

W^^' 

■  "X 

Manure  spread  evenly  is  most  valuable 


uniformly  as  possible,  finish  loading,  and  drive  to  the  field  and 
spread  the  phosphated  manure.  This  brings  about  a  very  com- 
plete and  intimate  mixture  of  the  manure  and  rock  phosphate, 
and  this  is  exceedingly  important,  because  the  decaying  organic 
matter  must  be  in  intimate  contact  with  the  rock  phosphate  in 
order  to  liberate  the  phosphorus  for  the  use  of  the  crops.  Where 
manure  is  not  available,  more  clover  should  be  plowed  under. 

A  System  of  Permanent  Agriculture  — This  practice  of 
applying  liberal  amounts  of  natural  rock  phosphate  in  connection 
with  sufficient  clover,  or  with  all  of  the  farm  manure  which  can 
be  made  on  the  farm  from  the  hay,  straw,  and  other  coarse 
products  and  from  the  oats  or  other  low-priced  grains,  together 
with  the  use  of  a  good  rotation,  including  plenty  of  clover,  pro- 
vides for  an  absolutely  permanent  system  of  agriculture,  even 


32 


FOB  BETTER  CBOBS  IN  TEE  SOUTH 


though  high-priced  grains  and  animal  products  are  sold  from  the 
farm.  It  is  a  system  under  which  the  land  grows  richer  and 
richer  and  more  and  more  productive  and  valuable,  instead  of 
becoming  poorer  and  less  productive,  as  has  been  the  case  with 
by  far  the  larger  part  of  the  older  cultivated  lands  in  the  United 
States. 

For  more  complete  data,  simple  discussion,  and  plain  explana- 
tion of  the  most  essential  information  the  world  affords,  relating 
to  soils  and  methods  of  soil  improvement,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  a  book  on  "Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture,"  pub- 
lished by  Ginn  &>  Company,  of  Boston,  Massachusetts. 


How  to  Grow  Cotton  in  Spite  of  the 
Boll  Weevil 


By  G.  H.  Alford* 

I  H  C  Agricultural  Extension  Department,  Atlanta,  Georgia. 


Destroy   the   boll    weevil.      Force    the 
cotton  plants  to  early  maturity. 

Eeduce  the  number  of  weevils  by  de- 
stroying the  food  supply ;  by  burning  all 
rubbish  in  and  about  the  cotton  fields 
which  are  serving  as  hibernating  quar- 
ters; by  picking  off  the  old  weevils  when 
they  appear  on  the  cotton  plants  early 
in  the  spring;  by  gathering  the  punct- 
ured squares  and  destroying  them  for 
the  first  month  after  the  cotton  season 
opens. 
Force  the  cotton  plants  to  early  maturity  by  selecting  an 
early  maturing  variety;  by  fertilizing  properly;  by  carefully 
selecting  early  maturing  seed,  and  by  thorough  cultivation. 

Destroy  Food  Supply— The  most  important  step  in  produc- 
ing cotton  in  boll  weevil  territory  is  the  early  fall  destruction 
of  the  weevil's  only  food  supply,  the  squares,  small  bolls,  and 
foliage  on  the  cotton  stalks.  When  their  food  supply  is  destroyed 
early  in  the  fall,  they  will  either  starve  for  lack  of  food  before 
cold  drives  them  into  quarters  or  will  go  into  winter  quarters 
"lank  and  lean"  and  very  few  will  survive  for  spring  depreda- 
tions. Another  very  important  reason  for  the  early  fall  destruc- 
tion of  the  squares  and  small  bolls  on  the  cotton  stalks  is  that 
the  development  of  the  late  broods  of  young,  fat,  vigorous 
weevils  that  survive  the  winter  is  cut  off  at  once.  There  are 
three  methods  of  destroying  the  squares,  small  bolls  and  foliage 
on  the  cotton  stalks:    Pasturing,  plowing  under,  burning. 

Pasturing  Cotton  Fields  is  a  good  method  of  destroying  the 
squares,  small  bolls,  and  foliage— the  food  supply  of  the  mature 


♦Editor's  Note  :  Mr.  Alford,  who  now  has  charge  of  the  I  H  C  Agricultural 
Extension  work  in  the  South,  served  several  years  in  the  employment  of  the  Grov- 
ernment  at  Washington,  D.  C.  As  a  legislator  in  Mississippi,  his  principal  work  was 
promoting  legislation  in  behalf  of  the  agricultural  interests  of  the  state.  He  has  made 
a  thorough  and  extended  study  of  the  cotton  boll  weevil  and  is  regarded  as  one  of  the 
best  informed  men  on  this  subject  in  the  South.  He  has  spent  considerable  time  in 
the  midst  of  the  boll  weevil  fight  in  southern  Mississippi,  where  he  had  charge  of  the 
Government  demonstration  work. 

.33 


34:  FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

weevils  and  the  incubators  of  the  immature  weevils— where  the 
cotton  fields  are  fenced  and  the  number  of  cattle  turned  into 
the  field  is  sufficient  to  eat  all  the  squares,  small  bolls  and 
leaves  in  a  few  days.  However,  let  it  be  distinctly  understood 
that  the  practice  of  turning  a  few  head  of  cattle  into  a  field  of 
fifteen  or  twenty  acres  of  cotton  stalks  accomplishes  no  partic- 
ular good.  We  all  know  from  observation  that  two  or  three 
head  of  cattle  per  acre,  even  when  confined  in  the  cotton  field, 
will  eat  very  little  of  the  green  foliage  in  ten  days.  And  let  us 
not  forget  that  it  is  necessary  to  destroy  completely  the  food 
supply  of  the  mature  weevils  and  to  stop  the  development  of 
broods  at  the  earliest  possible  stage. 

Plowing  Under  the  Cotton  Stalks  is  a  good  method  of 
destroying  the  only  food  suppl'y  of  the  mature  weevils  and  of 
ending  the  life  of  the  immature  weevils  where  there  are  few 
stumps,  small  cotton  stalks,  and  where  large  plows  and  strong 


A  serious  dra^^back  to  Southern  agriculture 

teams  can  be  had.  I  have  held  the  plow  handles  in  the  piney 
woods,  in  the  prairie  section,  and  in  the  rich  bottom  lands,  and 
I  know  from  experience  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  bury  com- 
pletely the  average  size  cotton  stalks.  I  have  hitched  three 
large  mules  to  a  twelve-inch  steel  beam  turning  plow  with  a  log 
chain  attachment  and  failed  to  turn  completely  under  average 
size  cotton  stalks  on  land  clear  of  stumps.  I  have  failed  to 
turn  under  large  size  cotton  stalks  with  four  large  mules  hitched 
to  a  thirty-inch  disk  plow.  In  fact,  farmers  who  have  attempted 
to  plow  under  green  cotton  stalks  early  in  the  fall  laugh  at  the 
advice  sometimes  given  to  plow  under  the  stalks  at  all  times 
and  under  all  conditions  as  a  means  of  destroying  the  food  sup- 
ply of  the  weevils.  However,  let  us  use  large  plows  and  strong 
teams  and  completely  bury  the  stalks  wherever  it  can  be  done. 
Burning  the  Cotton  Stalks  as  soon  as  the  cotton  is  picked 
out  it  is  absolutely  necessary  on  farms  and  plantations  where 
there  is  an  insufficient  number  of  cattle  to  denude  the  cotton 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  35 

stalks  of  squares,  small  bolls,  and  green  foliage,  thoroughly 
and  completely  in  a  short  time,  or  where  it  is  impossible  to  bury 
the  cotton  stalks  completely.  When  the  stalks  are  burned,  the 
food  supply  of  the  adult  weevils  is  destroyed  and  the  large 
majority  of  the  adult  weevils  perish  in  the  flames  when  the 
stalks  are  burned  after  sundown.  Of  course,  if  it  is  impossible 
to  pick  the  cotton  out  and  the  stalks  are  allowed  to  remain 
until  a  heavy  frost  has  come  and  the  weevils  have  gone  into 
winter  quarters,  it  is  not  advisable  to  burn  the  stalks. 

Destroy  Hibernating  Places— Practically  all  of  the  weevils 
hibernating  in  corn  fields,  old  sorghum  or  cane  fields,  along  turn- 
rows,  fences,  hedges,  ditches,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  cotton 
fields  can  be  destroyed.  If  the  cornstalks,  sorghum  and  cane 
shucks  are  thoroughly  plowed  under  for  a  depth  of  several 
Inches,  very  few  weevils  survive.  The  clearing  of  the  stumps 
and  dead  trees  in  and  around  the  cotton  fields  and  the  cleaning 


■   .    ^    , -^J,,^-, : 

,    .  .._^ 

l^i^|toggfc»-i~  *^ieHB 

■ 

The  way  to  plow  if  results  are  expeoted 

and  burning  of  hedges,  ditch  banks,  fence  corners  and  other 
hibernating  places  in  the  fields  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  fields 
will  destroy  thousands  of  weevils. 

Pick  the  Weevils — When  the  weevils  first  appear  in  the 
spring,  they  eat  the  tender  leaflets  of  the  terminal  buds  of  the 
young  cotton  plants.  After  the  squares  begin  to  form,  they 
feed  upon  them  and  seldom  puncture  bolls  as  long  as  squares 
are  abundant.  It  is  advisable  to  pick  the  weevils  off  the  little 
cotton  until  numerous  squares  begin  to  form.  One  pair  of 
weevils  less  in  the  spring  means  millions  less  later  in  the  season. 
Children  under  ten  are  unable  to  do  farm  work  and  may  pick 
the  weevils  off  the  little  cotton.  Do  not  lay  down  the  hoe  and 
stop  the  plow  to  pick  off  the  weevils. 

Gather  the  Punctured  Squares — The  beneficial  results 
obtained  from  picking  up  fallen  punctured  squares  depends 
mainly  upon  the  season.    When  the  punctured  squares  fall  to 


36  FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

the  ground  and  are  subjected  to  the  unobstructed  rays  of  the 
sun,  the  mortality  of  the  larvae  and  pupae  is  exceedingly  high. 
When  the  rows  are  wide  and  the  cotton  small,  practically  all  the 
larvae  and  pupae  in  the  punctured  squares  are  killed  during  hot, 
fair  weather.  If  the  rows  are  narrow  and  the  cotton  makes  a 
rank  growth  and  shades  the  ground",  or  if  it  is  cloudy,  practically 
all  of  the  larvae  and  pupae  in  the  punctured  squares  will  come 
to  maturity  unless  the  squares  are  picked  up  and  destroyed. 
The.  more  rankly  the  cotton  grows  and  the  more  the  ground  is 
shaded,  the  greater  the  necessity  for  picking  up  and  destroying 
the  punctured  squares.  It  is  well  to  collect  all  the  squares  that 
fall  for  at  least  a  month  after  the  first  square  forms  and  place 
them  in  wire  cages  or  burn  them.    The  punctured  squares  ought 


;•'  f '■ 

J  .._■ 

^^M^^V 

w.T  r^''  ^^ 
1    1%     ' 

1 

W^^^ 

pkuyuHli 

1 

'^^^^^^^^^^^^IB^'^^ 

^^fe^^^^ 

^^1 

^migj^^^^ 

^^^ 

m 

The  tractor  at  -w^brk  in  the  field 

to  be  placed  in  wire  cages  for  the  reason  that  many  weevil 
larvae  in  the  infested  squares  harbor  parasites.  The  meshes  of 
the  wire  of  the  cage  should  be  at  least  sixteen  to  the  inch.  The 
parasites  on  account  of  their  small  size  will  escape,  and  con- 
tinue their  deadly  work  against  the  weevils  in  fields  while  the 
weevils  will  soon  die  for  lack  of  food..  A  tinner  will  make  the 
cages  at  a  reasonable  price.  Of  course  if  it  is  not  possible  to  use 
the  wire  cages,  burn  the  squares. 

Grow  an  Early  Maturing  Crop— The  production  of  a% 
early  crop  of  cotton  is  accomplished  as  follows:  Cut  the  cotton 
acreage  to  five  or  six  acres  to  the  mule  so  that  cultural  methods 
may  be  closely  followed.    Plant  only  warm,  quick-making  land 


87 


38  FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


to  cotton.  You  may  plant  bottom  land,  hill  land,  rich  land  or 
poor  land,  but  the  land  must  be  quick-making  land.  Late  land 
will  not  make  cotton  in  the  weevil  territory.  Where  the  soil 
responds  to  commercial  fertilizers,  apply  from  three  to  eight 
hundred  pounds  per  acre  to  hasten  maturity  and  increase  the 
yield.  Thoroughly  pulverize  the  soil  before  planting.  Work 
the  soil  until  it  is  like  an  ash  heap  for  three  or  four  inches  deep. 
Plant  early,  rapid-fruiting,  prolific  cotton  seed.  Plant  as  early 
as  the  season  will  permit  in  rows  a  little  wider  than  the  cotton 
usually  grows  tall. 

Commence  to  work  the  cotton  as  soon  as  possible  and  never 
permit  a  crust  to  form  or  the  field  to  become  grassy.  Continue 
till  the  cotton  begins  to  open. 

Fertilizers— On  rich  lands  use  mainly  fertilizers  that  stim- 
ulate the  fruit  and  not  the  stalk  growth.  High  grade  sixteen 
per  cent  acid  phosphate  is  the  basis  for  increasing  fruit  and 
hastening  maturity.  Cotton-seed  meal  is  the  basis  for  stimu- 
lating stalk  growth.  A  mixture  of  two  parts  of  sixteen  per  cent 
acid  phosphate  and  one  part  of  six  per  cent  cotton-seed  meal  is 
a  good  mixture  for  poor  land.  It  is  best  to  lay  off  the  rows, 
distribute  the  fertilizers  in  the  furrows  and  bed  on  it. 

Selection  of  Seed— The  production  of  an  early  crop  of  cotton 
is  now  absolutely  necessary.  We  must  either  buy  early,  rapid- 
fruiting,  prolific  cotton  seed  or  select  seed  from  cotton  plants 
with  low  fruit  limbs  and  short  joints  on  the  main  stem  and  fruit 
limbs.  The  results  obtained  by  experiment  stations  have  proven 
conclusively  that  we  may  develop  early,  rapid-fruiting  strains 
of  cotton  by  selecting  seed  from  early,  rapid-fruiting,  prolific 
cotton  plants.  The  results  obtained  show  that  one  selection 
increases  the  earliness  and  productiveness  to  a  surprising 
extent. 

Cultivation— This  should  begin  before  the  cotton  comes  up. 
It  is  best  done  by  running  two  sections  of  a  peg-tooth  steel 
harrow  across  the  rows.  The  loosening  of  the  surface  soil  with 
peg-tooth  steel  harrow  helps  to  let  the  young  plants  through, 
and  kills  millions  of  tiny  weeds  and  grass  plants  just  as  they  are 
coming  up.  The  cotton  should  also  be  harrowed  broadcast  with 
the  peg-tooth  harrow  after  it  comes  up.  This  early  cultivation 
with  the  harrow  kills  the  little  grass  and  weeds  in  the  sprout 
and  does  away  with  the  necessity  of  "barring  off,"  forms  a  soil 
mulch  all  over  the  field  which  holds  the  moisture  in  the  ground, 
and  causes  the  young  plants  to  grow  rapidly.  Broadcast  harrow- 
ing with  a  two-horse  team  is  quickly  done  and  is  the  best  kind 
of  cultivation  until  the  cotton  is  large  enough  to  be  thinned  and 
worked  with  a  disk  harrow,  heel  sweeps  and  walking  and  riding 
cultivators  without  covering  it.    The  use  of  the  harrow  before 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  39 

and  after  the  plants  come  up  also  reduces  the  necessity  for  the 
use  of  the  expensive  hoe  to  the  minimum. 

All  later  cultivation  should  be  made  with  such  implements 
as  disk  harrows,  and  two-horse  cultivators  and  heel  sweeps.  A 
turning  plow  is  out  of  place  in  a  cotton  crop  unless  the  soil  is 
devoid  of  vegetable  matter  and  runs  together  after  heavy  rains 
or  unless  it  rains  for  two  or  three  weeks  and  it  becomes  necessary 
to  bury  grass.  If  the  land  is  clear  of  roots  and  stumps  we  can 
give  a  large  angle  to  the  disks  on  a  disk  harrow,  straddle  the 
row  and  throw  dirt  toward  or  away  from  the  cotton  plants.  One 
man  with  two  horses  and  a  disk  harrow  can  take  a  row  at  one 
time  and  destroy  the  grass  and  weeds  and  make  a  fine  soil  mulch 
out  of  the  hardest,  sun-baked  soil. 

The  latest  reversible  disk  harrow  is  furnished  with  an  exten- 
sion which  raises  the  harrow  frame  high  enough  so  that  cotton 
grown  on  soil  of  average  fertility  can  be  entirely  cultivated  with 


The  disk  harrow  preparing  a  cotton  seed  bed 

this  implement.  However,  when  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
use  the  turning  plow  by  all  means  avoid  deep  cultivation  late  in 
the  season,  and  be  sure  and  use  harrows  or  cultivators  a  few 
days  after  using  the  turning  plow  to  make  the  stirred  soil 
thoroughly  fine  and  create  a  dust  mulch. 

Cultivation  with  turning  plows  and  one-horse  cultivators  is 
too  slow  for  the  boll  weevil  territory  and  should  not  be  practiced 
unless  the  land  is  full  of  roots  and  stumps.  Such  a  condition  is 
inexcusable  for  the  reason  that  we  can  burn,  dig,  pull  and  blow 
out  the  stumps  in  a  few  years.  Spare  time  can  be  used  to  the 
best  advantage  in  getting  out  stumps  and  roots.  This  is  an  age 
of  labor-saving  farm  implements  and  no  farmer  can  afford  to 
walk  down  each  middle  three  or  four  times  in  cultivating  his 
crop.  The  boll  weevil  is  one  of  the  most  energetic  and  destruc- 
tive insects  that  the  world  has  ever  known,  and  usually  com- 
pletely destroys  the  slow  farmers'  crop. 


40 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


41 


The  Race  Begins—  A  majority  of  the  wintered-over  weevils 
are  out  of  winter  quarters  by  the  time  the  cotton  begins  to  set 
squares.  A  race  that  means  much  and  a  race  that  is  watched 
by  all  the  world  then  begins.  The  cotton  runs  the  race  of  its 
life  to  set  squares  faster  than  the  weevils  can  multiply  and 
puncture  them.  If  the  land  is  warm,  quick-making,  thoroughly 
pulverized  and  fertilized  with  from  three  to  eight   hundred 


A  disk  harrow  cultivating  cotton 

pounds  per  acre,  the  seed  an  early,  rapid-fruiting,  prolific  varie- 
ty, the  crop  given  intensive,  shallow  cultivation  until  the  cotton 
begins  to  open — the  cotton  goes  out  under  the  wire  far  in  the 
lead  with  from  one-half  to  a  bale  per  acre.  If  the  land  is  "late" 
broken  into  clods,  very  little  fertilizer  applied,  the  seed  a  late, 
slow-making  variety,  the  cultivation  slow  and  deep,  the  weevils 
will  soon  destroy  all  the  squares,  and  then  destroy  all  the  bolls. 


Small  Grains  in  the  South 


By  Pbof.  M.  a.  Carleton 

Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 


The  actual  farm  value  of  the  small -grain 
crops  in  the  South  is  probably  greater 
than  is  generally  supposed.  The  value  of 
either  oats  or  wheat,  is  not  far  from  that 
of  the  corn  crop.  Even  if  no  profit  is  ob- 
tained from  the  sale  of  a  surplus  it  is  a 
great  convenience  for  the  farmer  to  grow 
the  quantity  of  small  grain  necessary  for 
his  own  use.  Besides,  small  grains  fit  well 
in  several  good  systems  of  crop  rotation, 
and  rotation  is  practically  necessary  to 
increase  the  chances  of  getting  returns 

each  year  and  to*  maintain  a  well-balanced  supply  of  plant  food 

in  the  soil. 

The  Small  Grain  Sections  —  The  *  principal  small-grain 
crops  are  oats  and  'wheat,  and  for  convenience  of  discussion  in 
this  paper  the  entire  region  may  be  roughly  divided  into  two 
portions,  (1)  the  northern  or  wheat  area,  including  the  Carolinas, 
eastern  Virginia,  and  Tennessee,  and  (2)  the  southern  or  oats 
area,  called  also  the  Cotton  Belt,  including  the  remainder  of  the 
territory  southward  to  the  Gulf,  the  northern  part  of  Florida, 
and  westward  to  include  most  of  Arkansas  and  eastern  Texas. 
Tennessee  at  present  produces  the  largest  quantity  of  wheat, 
although  South  Carolina  has  increased  her  wheat  acreage  pro- 
portionately much  beyond  that  of  any  other  Southern  state. 
Georgia  is  the  most  important  state  in  oat  production. 

OATS— The  three  groups  of  varieties  that  are  commonly 
grown  in  the  South  include  (1)  the  Bed  Bustproof  strains,  (2)  the 
Burt  bat,  and  (3)  the  Turf  or  Gray  Winter  strains.  The  Bed 
Bustproof  group  includes  red  chaff  varieties,  bearded,  and  with  a 
bunch  of  bristles  at  the  base  of  the  lower  grain  of  the  spikelet. 
The  chief  variety  is  known  simply  as  Bed  Bustproof.  The 
Appier  oat,  however,  belongs  to  the  same  group.  These  varie- 
ties are  in  adaptation  a  mean  between  spring  and  winter  oats, 
so  that  while  grown  in  the  Northern  states  as  spring  varieties 
they  are  commonly  sown  in  the  fall  in  the  Cotton  Belt  states 
and  therefore  classed  there  as  winter  oats. 

The  Burt  oat,  called  also  Early  Burt,  has  a  grayish  or  dun- 
colored  hull,  is  distinguished  by  early  ripening,  and  is  much 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  43 


shorter  in  growth  than  the  Red  Rustproof.  It  is  strictly  a 
spring  variety  and  is  par.ticularly  adapted  to  the  northern  area 
of  the  Southern  states. 

The  Gray  Winter  or  Winter  Turf  varieties  have  also  a  gray 
or  light  dun-colored  chaff,  but  are  quite  different  from  the  Burt 
in  being  true  winter  varieties  and  are  also  much  hardier  for 
fall  sowing  than  the  Red  Rustproof  type.  They  are,  therefore, 
particularly  adapted  for  fall  seeding  in  the  northern  area,  but 
are  also  grown  in  the  southern  district. 

Soil— The  oat  crop  is  rather  exacting  on  the  soil,  but  at  the 
same  time  can  be  grown  with  good  results  on  poorer  soil  than 
most  other  cereals.    However,  like  all  other  cereals  it  requires 


An  oat  field  'where  cotton  onoe  ^rew 

for  the  best  results  some  kind  of  clay  loam  with  as  much  organic 
matter  as  ordinarily  occurs  in  any  Southern  soil. 

Oats  in  Rotation— A  good  rotation  for  oats  is  to  place  them 
after  corn,  the  oats  followed  by  cowpeas  the  same  season,  and 
these  followed  by  cotton  the  third  year,  then  corn  again.  In 
this  series,  it  is  common  also  to  plant  cowpeas  with  the  corn. 
There  is,  therefore,  the  beneficial  effect  upon  the  soil  of  two 
leguminous  crops  in  succession.  Even  in  the  Cotton  Belt  the 
oats  following  corn  is  a  good  plan,  for  the  reason  that  the  latter 
comes  off  in  time  for  the  fall  seeding  of  oats.  When  oats  are 
sown  in  the  spring,  of  course,  they  could  just  as  well  follow  a 
cotton  crop. 

In  the  district  comprising  Alabama,  Mississippi,  the  western 
portion  of  Tennessee,  Louisiana,  and  southern  Arkansas,  lespe- 
deza,  or  Japan  clover,  has  come  to  be  a  very  important  crop,  and 


44 


FOB  BETTER  CHOPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


a  very  good  rotation  with  this  crop  can  be  arranged  in  which 
oats  occur.  One  rotation  is  that  of  corn,  oats,  and  lespedeza. 
Corn  is  harvested  the  first  year,  oats  and  lespedeza  sown  together 
the  second  year,  and  the  lespedeza  alone  the  third  year,   the 


latter  re-seeding  itself  the  last  season, 
appears  to  be  an  excellent  hay  crop. 


In  this  district  lespedeza 


Fertilizers — Unless  an  abundance  of  stable  manure  is  avail- 
able or  leguminous  crops  are  grown  in  rotation,  the  small  grains 
will  always  require  artificial  fertilizers.  Even  in  the  best  crop- 
ping systems,  these  fertilizers  may  occasionally  need  to  be  used. 
On  medium  or  poor  land  it  is  usually  necessary  to  apply  acid 
phosphate  to  the  amount  of  150  to  200  pounds  per  acre.    It 


A  wheat  harvest  in  Tennessee 


should  be  applied  at  the  time  of  seeding  and  drilled  in  with  the 
same  drill  that  seeds  the  crop.  Ordinarily  the  plant  food  most 
needed  is  nitrogen.  This  is  furnished  in  the  form  of  nitrate  of 
soda  and  applied  as  a  top  dressing.  For  winter  oats  or  for  spring 
seeding  in  the  southern  district,  it  is  applied  the  first  part  of 
March  and  for  spring  oats  in  the  northern  district  in  the  latter 
part  of  March. 

Soil  Preparation— One  of  the  greatest  mistakes  in  grain 
cultivation  is  the  poor  treatment  given  to  the  soil.  When  oats  fol- 
low corn  the  corn  ground  should  have  been  plowed  deep  enough 
so  that  the  next  plowing  for  oats  need  not  be  so  deep;  in  fact, 
if  the  corn  has  been  well  cultivated  and  the  stalks  taken  off,  a 
good  disking  followed  by  the  harrow  will  be  sufficient.  If  win- 
ter oats  follow  a  crop  taken  off  earlier  in  the  summer,  plowing 


FOB  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  45 

for  the  oats  should  be  done  as  early  as  possible  and  the  ground 
should  afterwards  be  surface  cultivated  by  the  disk  or  harrow, 
frequently  enough  to  keep  down  weeds  and  keep  the  soil  in  good 
tilth. 

Methods  of  Seeding  —  Of  course,  oats  or  any  other  grain 
crop  should  be  sown  only  with  the  drill  or  by  such  other  method 
as  will  give  the  crop  similar  conditions.  The  seed  should 
never  be  broadcasted. 

The  Open  Furrow  Method  —  What  is  known  as  the  "open 
furrow  "  method  is  a  good  practice.  By  this  method  a  machine 
Is  used  on  which  the  hoes  are  considerably  farther  apart  than  on 
the  ordinary  drill,  each  preceded  in  front  by  a  shovel  which 
opens  a  furrow  similar  to  the  listed  furrow  in  corn  planting, 
though  not  so  wide  and  deep  as  the  latter.  By  this  method  the 
seed  is  put  in  deep  in  compacted  soil,  thus  favoring  germination 
and  root  formation  and  the  plants  are  thereby  protected  from 
danger  of  heaving  of  the  soil  by  freezing.  A  number  of  exper- 
iments have  shown  that  the  yield  per  acre  resulting  from  the 
use  of  this  method  is  considerably  greater  than  that  following 
the  use  of  the  drill  and,  of  course,  much  better  than  the  yields 
following  broadcasting.  The  rate  of  seeding,  also,  is  a  little  less 
per  acre  by  the  open  furrow  method  than  by  the  use  of  the  drill. 

Time  of  Seeding  — The  time  of  seeding  Winter  oats  in  the 
Cotton  Belt  states  is  anywhere  from  October  15  to  I^ovember 
15-^  a  good  medium  date  probably  being  the  last  of  October. 
In  the  northern  area,  the  date  may  be  one  to  two  weeks  earlier. 
Spring  oats  should  be  sown  about  February  15  in  the  Cotton 
Belt  and  about  March  1  farther  north,  these  dates,  of  course, 
being  subject  to  variation  because  of  changes  of  seasons  or  for 
other  reasons. 

Rate  of  Seeding— The  rate  of  seeding  is  from  one  and  one- 
half  to  three  bushels  per  acre.  A  good  average  rate  with  well- 
cleaned  seed  should  be  about  two  and  one-half  bushels  in  the 
case  of  broadcasting;  two  bushels  if  drilled;  and  a  little  less 
than  two  bushels  by  the  open  furrow  method. 

Winter-killing— Winter  oats  are  much  subject  to  winter- 
killing and  therefore  much  advantage  results  from  the  selection 
of  hardy  strains.  Such  strains  are  being  developed  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  occasionally  farm- 
ers will  be  given  the  benefit  of  new  varieties  considerably  hardier 
with  respect  to  winter-killing  than  others  now  grown.  Winter- 
killing may  be  partially  prevented  by  other  means,  such  as  the 
open  furrow  method  of  seeding  already  mentioned,  and  any 
means  of  compacting  the  soil  about  the  roots.  Occasionally  the 
roller  may  be  advantageously  used  to  press  the  earth  around  the 


46  FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

plants  as  soon   after  a  freeze  as  the  ground  is  in  condition  to 
permit  its  use. 

Pasturing— If  the  crop  is  likely  to  joint  before  the  occurrence 
of  freezes  in  the  fall,  or,  too  early  in  the  spring,  damage  by  frost 
can  be  prevented  by  pasturing-.  All  fall-sown  grain  crops  can  be 
advantageously  pastured  if  this  is  practiced  with  due  regard  to 
other  conditions.  Stock  should  never  be  turned  on  when  the 
ground  is  wet,  and  care  should  be  taken  at  any  time  that  the 
grazing  is  not  too  close. 

Diseases— The  diseases  to  which  the  oat  crop  is  liable  are 
chiefly  the  rusts  and  smuts.  The  Red  Rustproof  oat  resists 
rust  to  a  considerable  extent  and  where  this  variety  is  grown 


A   harvest  scene  under  Southern  skies 

there  is  seldom  damage  from  that  disease.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  Burt  oat  ripens  so  early  that  often  it  escapes  the  effects  of 
the  rust  at  the  time  of  its  greatest  abundance.  However,  it 
may  be  worth  while,  in  places,  to  select  strains  that  are  still 
further  resistant  to  this  fungus.  There  is  no  known  preventive 
or  remedy  for  rust. 

The  greatest  damage  is  likely  to  result  from  loose  smut. 
This  smut,  however,  can  be  completely  and  readily  prevented 
by  the  hot-water  treatment  or  by  the  use  of  formalin.  A  com- 
plete discussion  of  this  subject  is  given  in  Farmers'  Bulletin 
No.  250,  entitled  "The  Prevention  of  Stinking  Smut  of  Wheat 
and  Loose  Smut  of  Oats."  This  pamphlet  will  be  sent  free  to 
any  resident  of  the  United  States  on  application  to  the  Secre- 
tary of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  47 

One  considerable  advantage  in  the  treatment  of  seed  for 
prevention  of  smut,  aside  from  getting  rid  of  the  smut  itself, 
is  the  increased  power  of  germination.  Occasionally  the  ger- 
minating power  of  the  seed  is  increased  ten  per  cent,  by  the 
hot-water  treatment. 

WHEAT— Though  wheat  is  not,  like  oats,  usually  employed 
as  a  food  for  stock,  the  good  price  it  always  commands  in  the 
South  and  the  importance  of  producing  suflficient  wheat  for 
home  consumption,  in  addition  to  its  desirability  in  a  series  of 
rotations,  are  good  reasons  for  considering  this  crop  an  impor- 
tant one. 

Varieties  —  Among  the  principal  varieties  of  wheat  grown 


A  'vrheat  iield  in  Tennessee 

in  the  South  are  the  Blue  Stem,  Red  May,  Fultz,  Fulcaster, 
and  Poole.  Throughout  the  Cotton  Belt  by  far  the  most  com- 
mon is  the  Blue  Stem,  a  beardless  variety  with  a  bluish  or  pur- 
plish straw.  It  is  also  often  called  Purple  Straw.  North  of  the 
Cotton  Belt,  this  variety  is  not  commonly  grown,  but  is  there 
replaced  by  the  Fulcaster,  Poole,  Fultz  and  others.  The  Poole 
and  Fultz  are  also  beardless  varieties  and  good  standard  wheats. 
The  Red  May  is  beardless  and  rather  early  in  ripening.  The 
Fulcaster  is  a  bearded  wheat  and  one  of  the  best  varieties  east 
of  the  Mississippi  river,  but  apparently  not  so  well  adapted  to 
Southern  conditions  as  to  the  North. 

Soil— The  soil  for  wheat,  as  for  oats,  should  be  some  kind 
of  clay  loam  with  considerable  organic  matter,  and  not  acid. 
The  application  of  lime  to  wheat  soils  is  probably  always  an 


48  FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

advantage  in  the  South,  but  it  is  particularly  necessary  if  there 
is  any  tendency  to  acidity  in  the  soil.  Where  much  needed, 
lime  should  be  applied  at  the  rate  of  1,500  to  2,000  pounds  per 
acre.  A  somewhat  smaller  quantity  would  probably  be  an 
advantage  in  many  cases.  The  liming  should  be  done  some 
time  before  the  seed  is  planted.  It  may  be  applied  through  the 
grain  drill  but  if  spread  on  the  surface  should  be  covered  with 
the  harrow. 

For  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  ravages  of  the  boll  weevil 
through  the  use  of  other  crops,  and  to  put  the  soil  in  good  con- 
dition for  wheat,  it  is  important  to  give  much  attention  to  the 
use  of  legumes.  Many  leguminous  crops  are  adapted  to  the 
South,  such  as  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  sweet  clover,  red  clover,  crim- 
son clover,  and,  in  the  western  portion,  Japan  clover.  These  are 
all  excellent,  wherever  they  are  adapted,  for  preceding  the  wheat 
crop. 

Rotations— It  is  important  to  precede  wheat  with  some  legu- 
minous crop,  preferably  cowpeas.  The  wheat  may  either  follow 
corn  with  which  cowpeas  have  been  sown  or  it  may  follow  a  crop 
of  cowpeas  sown  alone.  In  the  latter  case  some  other  crop,  such 
as  oats,  may  precede  the  cowpeas  the  same  season.  With  crim- 
son clover  the  following  four-year  rotation  may  be  advanta- 
geously arranged,  viz.,  first  year,  cotton,  with  crimson  clover  sown 
later  between  the  rows;  second  year,  cotton;  third  year,  corn 
with  cowpeas;  fourth  year,  wheat  followed  by  cowpeas.  Where 
red  clover  can  be  grown  a  good  three-year  rotation  would  be  as 
follows:  first  year,  wheat  sown  with  red  clover;  second  year,  con- 
tinuation of  the  red  clover;  third  year,  corn. 

''^«rtilizers—  Ordinarily  it  will  be  necessary  to  use  fertilizers 
for  wheat.  Acid  phosphate  is  apparently  a  little  more  necessary 
than  in  the  case  of  oats,  while  on  poor  soils,  such  as  those  much 
inclined  to  be  sandy,  potash  should  be  applied.  A  proper  pro- 
portion of  commercial  fertilizers  would  usually  be  150  to  200 
pounds  of  acid  phosphate,  25  pounds  of  potash,  and  80  to  100 
pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  per  acre.  As  in  the  case  of  oats  the 
acid  phosphate  and  potash  should  be  applied  at  the  time  of  seed- 
ing. The  nitrate  of  soda  is  applied  as  a  top  dressing  some  time 
in  March,  or  about  three  months  before  harvest. 

Soil  Preparation  —  An  important  feature  of  cultivation  is 
early  and  deep  plowing  unless  the  wheat  is  preceded  by  a  culti- 
vated crop.  It  is  a  safe  rule  never  to  leave  the  ground  idle  for 
any  length  of  time  after  the  preceding  crop  is  removed.  It 
should  be  at  once  plowed  or  otherwise  treated  for  the  crop  that 
is  to  follow. 

Seeding— Other  practices  to  be  observed  in  soil  preparation, 
and  method  and  time  of  seeding,  arQ  about  the  same  for  wheat  as 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  49 

for  oat  cultivation.  The  date  of  seeding  wheat,  however,  should 
be  somewhat  later  than  that  of  sowing  winter  oats,  partly 
because  wheat  is  a  hardier  crop,  but  also  because  of  the  attacks 
of  the  Hessian  fly.  As  the  Hessian  fly  is  killed  by  frost  a  good 
practice  is  to  sow  after  the  first  killing  frost.  In  the  Cotton 
Belt  the  time  of  seeding  would  run  from  about  October  1  to 
November  10,  or  an  average  date  of  about  November  1,  though 
wheat  is  sometimes  sown  as  late  as  the  last  week  of  Novem- 
ber or  the  first  of  December.  In  the  northern  district  the  date 
should  be  from  October  20  to  November  1,  or  an  average  date 
of  about  October  25.  In  the  mountainous  districts,  seeding 
should  be  a  little  earlier  than  nearer  the  coast. 

The  proper  rate  of  seeding  for  wheat  may  vary  from  one 
to  one  and  one-half  bushels  per  acre.  An  average  rate  for  good 
well-cleaned  seed,  sown  with  a  drill,  should  be  about  five  pecks 
to  the  acre. 

Winter-kilHnj^  and  Pasturing— Wheat  being  a  hardier  crop 
than  winter  oats  there  is  less  danger  that  it  will  be  winter-killed. 
Care  should  be  exercised,  however,  in  pasturing  wheat.  The 
ground  should  not  be  soft  when  the  stock  is  turned  on  and  the 
wheat  should  not  be  pastured  close. 

Diseases — Concerning  wheat  diseases  the  same  remarks  may 
be  made  with  reference  to  rust  that  apply  to  oats.  There  is  no 
remedy  or  preventive,  but  there  is  a  chance  for  improvement  in 
the  way  of  selecting  more  rust-resistant  strains.  The  common 
smut  of  wheat,  known  as  stinking  smut,  can  be  easily  and  thor- 
oughly prevented  by  either  the  hot  water  or  formalin  treatment. 
Instructions  as  to  the  use  of  these  methods  are  given  in  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  250,  entitled  "The  Prevention  of  Stinking  Smut 
of  Wheat  and  Loose  Smut  of  Oats." 

The  importance  of  treating  both  wheat  and  oats  for  smut 
cannot  be  too  much  emphasized.  Often  crops  are  destroyed  to 
the  extent  of  10  to  40  per  cent  by  these  diseases  and  yet  any  loss 
at  all  can  be  readily  prevented. 

Seed  Selection  of  Small  Grains  —  In  the  case  of  any  of  the 
small  grains  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  farmers  should 
use  each  year  a  high  quality  of  seed.  This  can  be  accomplished 
only  by  keeping  the  crop  pure  from  other  varieties,  and,  by  the 
use  of  the  fanning  mill,  selecting  the  heaviest  and  largest  ker- 
nels. Other  cereals  should  not  be  allowed  by  careless  methods 
in  threshing  or  through  any  other  means  to  become  mixed  with 
the  crop  that  is  being  grown.  If  this  should  occur,  however, 
the  seed  of  different  cereals  may  often  be  separated  by  what  is 
known  as  the  " specific  gravity  method."  This  is  described  in 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  Circular  No.  62,  entitled  "The  Sep- 
aration  of  Seed  Barley  by  the  Specific  Gravity  Method,"  and  is 


50  FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  TEE  SOUTH 

a  simple  method  of  immersing  the  seed  in  water,  allowing  the 
kernels  of  the  lighter  cereal  to  float  to  the  top  when  they  can  be 
skimmed  off.  This  process  of  separating  grain  mixtures  may  be 
combined  with  the  hot-water  treatment  for  smut,  thus  per- 
forming both  operations  at  the  same  time. 

In  addition  to  keeping  seed  pure,  the  farmer  may  greatly 
improve  his  crop  by  the  selection  of  better  plants  each  year. 
This  may  be  accomplished  by  the  following  method.  Just  before 
harvest  select  from  the  field  vigorous,  healthy  plants  that  have 
stool ed  well,  that  have  large  heads  and  that  are  free  from  rust 
or  smut.  Continue  the  gathering  of  these  plants  until  after 
threshing  you  have  enough  seed  to  plant  an  acre  of  ground. 
This  space  is  to  be  known  as  a  seed  plat  and  its  size  year  after 


A  field  of  rye  in  Dixie  Land 

year,  of  course,  should  depend  upon  the  acreage  of  grain  that  is 
to  be  planted.  In  this  seed  plat  Is  grown  only  the  grain  that  is 
to  be  used  for  sowing  the  general  crop  the  next  year.  If  this 
seed  selection  becomes  a  regular  custom,  as  it  should,  the  farmer 
will  be  justified  in  buying  a  small  one  or  two-horse  power 
thresher  that  can  be  run  by  a  gasoline  engine,  which  will 
readily  thresh  any  small-sized  bundles,  as  small  even  as  a  mere 
handful.  The  seed  plat  should  be  set  apart  from  any  of  the 
fields  and  kept  thoroughly  protected,  even  fenced  in  if  necessary. 
Just  before  harvesting  this  seed  plat,  the  very  best  plants  should 
be  selected  from  the  plat  in  the  manner  described,  and  the  seed 
of  these  plants  should  be  used  for  sowing  this  seed  plat  the  next 
autumn  or  spring.  The  remainder  of  the  seed  that  is  taken  from 
the   seed  plat  should  be  used  for  seeding  the  general  crop. 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  51 

Continue  the  same  method  from  year  to  year,  always  using  the 
best  seed  from  the  seed  plat  for  seeding  it  again  and  the  remain- 
der of  the  seed  for  seeding  the  general  crop.  In  this  way  no 
seed  is  ever  taken  from  the  general  crop,  yet  it  is  constantly 
improved,  and  is  better  than  imported  seed. 

Harvesting— In  harvesting  both  wheat  and  oats  it  is  always 
better  to  cut  the  grain  a  little  early  rather  than  late.  Over- 
ripe grain  becomes  bleached,  or  will  lodge,  or  be  damaged  other- 
wise. The  heads  should  turn  to  yellowish  white  or  golden  color, 
but  the  straw  should  yet  remain  a  little  green.  A  fair  rule  to 
follow  is  to  harvest  when  the  kernel  on  being  pinched  between 
the  thumb  and  finger  can  be  only  slightly  dented  by  the  finger 
nail.  The  grain  should  be  fairly  dry  when  cut,  though  a  slight 
amount  of  dew  may  not  be  an  injury.  Grain  is  sometimes  cut 
with  a  self-rake  reaper  or  even  occasionally  with  a  mower,  and, 
in  the  latter  case,  left  to  dry  awhile  and  then  raked  into  wind- 
rows and  finally  put  in  cocks.  These  methods,  however,  are 
slow,  expensive,  wasteful,  and  likely  to  be  damaging  to  the 
grain.  The  best  method  of  all,  when  possible  to  follow  it,  is  to 
cut  with  a  self-binder,  put  the  bundles  into  well-constructed 
shocks  soon  afterwards;  then,  after  curing  a  few  days  or  a  week, 
put  the  bundles  in  a  stack  or  in  the  barn. 

RYE  and  BARLEY  are  at  present  comparatively  un- 
important crops  in  the  South.  Considerable  attention,  how- 
ever, has  been  given  recently  to  the  barley  crop  and  it  probably 
should  be  grown  considerably  more  than  at  present.  Barley  is 
excellent  for  pasturage  and  good  for  feeding  stock,  particularly 
hogs.  All  barley  and  rye  should  be  sowed  in  the  fall.  Other 
advice  with  respect  to  these  two  crops  would  be  about  the  same 
as  that  given  for  the  cultivation  of  oats  and  wheat. 


Grsisses  and  Leguminous  Crops  in 
the  South 


By  S.  M.  Tracy 

Special  Agent  in  Forage  Crop  Investigations,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Biloxi,  Mississippi 


Every  region  has  its  own  special  assort- 
ment of  forage  crops,  and  each  crop  needs 
its  own  special  location  and  management. 
The  South  has  a  greater  number  of  profit- 
able forage  crops  than  has  any  other  sec- 
tion of  the  country,  though  the  red  clover, 
timothy,  red-top,  and  other  common  for- 
age crops  of  the  North  are  almost  un- 
known. This  difference  in  the  kinds  of 
forage  does  not  indicate  that  the  South- 
ern crops  are  in  any  way  deficient  in  yield 
or  quality,  but  simply  that  crops  change 
with  soils,  climates,  and  conditions.  In  fact,  the  yields  per  acre 
are  greater  in  the  South  than  in  any  part  of  the  country.  The 
Year-book  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1909  gives 
the  10-year  average  for  the  whole  of  the  United  States  as  1.44 
tons  per  acre,  while  the  average  for  Texas,  Louisiana,  and  the 
states  east  of  the  Mississippi  river  was  1.54  tons  per  acre.  Not 
only  is  the  yield  greater  in  the  South,  but  prices  are  much  higher. 
The  10-year  average  farm  price  during  the  same  years  for  the 
entire  country  was  $11.62  per  ton,  while  the  price  in  the  South- 
ern states  named  was  $17.33  per  ton.  In  other  words,  the  aver- 
age cash  yield  per  acre  was  $16.73  for  the  whole  of  the  United 
States,  while  for  the  Southern  states  it  was  $26.68  per  acre,  or 
nearly  60  per  cent  greater  than  the  general  average. 

A  Wide  Range  of  Profitable  Crops — To  produce  these 
heavy  yields  and  satisfactory  profits,  the  South  has  a  large  num- 
ber of  crops  available,  Bermuda  and  Johnson  grasses  being  among 
those  commonly  used  for  permanent  meadows,  w^hile  alfalfa, 
melilotus,  Dallis  grass,  lespedeza,  and  others  are  of  great  value  in 
certain  regions.  It  is  easy  to  secure  good,  permanent  pastures, 
yet  permanent  meadows  are  less  common  and  of  less  import- 
ance than  in  the  North.  A  large  part  of  the  hay  made  in  the 
South  is  from  annual  plants  which  are  grown  in  the  fields  when 
they  are  not  occupied  with  growing  cotton,  corn,  or  other  grains. 
In  all  the  country  south  of  the  Ohio  river  it  is  possible  to  have 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  53 

some  growing  crop  on  the  ground  at  all  seasons,  and  so  many 
hay  crops  are  grown  at  times  when  the  fields  would  otherwise 
be  idle. 

Bermuda,  The  Blue  Grass  of  the  South— Bermuda  grass 
is  to  the  South,  what  Kentucky  bluegrass  is  to  the  North— the 
foundation  of  the  best  permanent  pastures.  On  rich  and  fairly 
moist  soils,  it  makes  two  to  four  tons  of  hay  per  acre,  in  two  to 
three  cuttings.  It  is  a  grass  which  needs  a  good  soil  to  make  a 
profitable  hay  crop,  but  the  hay  is  of  fine  quality,  having  no 
coarse  stems  and  no  waste.  It  is  the  best  hay  grass  for  rich 
river-bottom  lands,  and  the  best  pasture  grass  for  all  excepting 
very  sandy  or  thin  clay  soils. 

It  is  usually  propagated  by  planting  small  pieces  of  the  sod, 
which  may  be  done  at  any  time  from  April  to  August.    If  the 


Where  alfalfa  shocks  are  plentiful 

field  is  wanted  for  a  meadow  the  ground  should  be  well-plowed, 
and  harrowed  until  the  surface  *is  level  and  smooth.  Sods, 
which  need  not  be  more  than  an  inch  in  thickness,  are  taken 
from  an  old  Bermuda  field  and  chopped  into  pieces  half  an  inch 
or  more  in  diameter.  These  pieces  are  then  dropped  three  or 
four  feet  apart  on  the  freshly  prepared  ground,  and  are  easily 
covered  by  pushing  them  into  the  soft  ground  with  the  foot. 
When  planted  early  in  the  spring,  the  plants  will  make  a  heavy 
growth  the  same  season,  but  July  and  August  plantings  will  do 
little  more  than  cover  the  ground  before  cold  weather.  If  the 
field  is  wanted  for  a  pasture,  less  care  is  necessary  in  planting, 
and  a  common  method  is  to  run  shallow  furrows  four  to  six 
feet  apart,  the  pieces  of  sod  being  dropped  in  these  furrows  and 
covered  with  the  foot,  or  a  hoe. 

When  sods  are  not  available  seed  may  be  used,  but  it  is 
usually  slow  and  uncertain   in  germinating.    The  ground  for 


54  FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

seed  must  be  made  very  fine  and  mellow,  and  the  seed  sown  at 
the  rate  of  five  pounds  per  acre  at  cotton-planting  time. 

Johnson  Grass  Is  Used  Extensively  for  Hay  —  This  grass 
makes  a  rank  growth  on  heavy,  loam  soils.  It  gives  two  or  three 
cuttings  annually,  with  a  yield  of  three  to  six  tons  per  acre. 
The  hay  is  rather  coarse,  but  is  eaten  well  by  all  kinds  of  stock, 
and  liverymen  prefer  it  to  any  other.  It  does  not  bear  tramp- 
ling well,  and  soon  becomes  weak  and  stunted  when  the  land  is 
used  as  pasture.  It  makes  its  best  growth  on  the  heavy,  black, 
lime  soils,  but  even  there  the  field  should  be  plowed  and  har- 
rowed once  in  two  or  three  years  to  prevent  the  roots  from 
becoming  so  matted  and  dense  as  to  check  the  growth  and 
decrease  the  yield.  Many  farmers  plow  the  land  annually  in 
September  and  then  sow  with  a  mixture  of  winter  oats  and 
vetch,  which  gives  the  best  of  winter  grazing,  and,  if  stock  is 
taken  off  in  March,  a  heavy  crop  of  hay  may  be  harvested  in  May, 


'^ :,^k:-:\-^^'^^^;:'r'^^-\  ',::. .^, 

^mm 

""■  V  &^':    ^  Zi  ^^          '             i            ^'< 

^^a's'^     -^     A-^-: 

The  soy  bean  supplies  a  -vrealth  of  forage 

which  will  permit  two  heavy  cuttings  of  the  Johnson  grass  later 
in  the  season.  The  one  serious  objection  to  its  cultivation  is 
the  fact  that  it  spreads  easily  and  is  difficult  to  eradicate  when 
once  established  in  a  field.  Many  farmers  object  to  it  on  that 
account. 

In  seeding  Johnson  Grass  the  laud  should  be  prepared  as 
for  wheat  or  oats,  and  the  seed  sown  at  cotton-planting  time  at 
the  rate  of  one  bushel  per  acre,  and  covered  by  harrowing. 

Alfalfa  Is  Adapted  to  Some  Sections— Alfalfa  makes  a 
vigorous  growth  and  a  heavy  yield  in  some  sections,  but  is  worth- 
less in  other  localities.  It  does  well  in  all  of  the  "black  prairie" 
belt  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  on  the  alluvial  soils  along  the 
Mississippi,  Yazoo,  Red,  and  other  large  rivers,  on  the  "black 
wax"  lands  of  eastern  Texas,  and  on  practically  all  river-bottom 
lands  where  there  is  a  well  drained  subsoil  and  where  the  sur- 
face soil  is  rich  in  lime,  but  has  never  been  a  profitable  crop  on 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  TEE  SOUTS  55 

any  part  of  the  sandy,  pine  wood  region.  On  suitable  soils  it 
makes  four  to  six  tons  per  acre  in  about  as  many  cuttings,  and 
the  hay  always  commands  a  high  price.  A  large  part  of  the 
good  alfalfa  lands  are  more  or  less  set  with  Johnson  grass,  but 
the  growers  regard  that  as  an  advantage,  as  the  latter  gives  a 
heavy  cutting  late  in  the  fall  after  the  alfalfa  has  nearly  stopped 
growing,  and  the  total  yield  is  considerably  increased.  Most 
feeders  prefer  the  mixed  hay  to  that  made  from  either  plant 
alone.  Alfalfa  always  grows  well  on  the  sugar  lands  of  Louisiana, 
but  is  usually  killed  by  root-rot  at  the  end  of  its  first  season. 
Many  sugar  planters,  however,  regard  it  as  the  best  crop  for 
their  rotation,  not  only  because  of  its  heavy  yield  of  hay,  but 
also  for  its  fertilizing  and  rejuvenating  effect  on  the  soil. 

The  seeding  ol  alfalfa  requires  more  careful  work  than  the 
planting  of  any  other  forage  crop.    The  ground  should  be  plowed 


Cowpeas  improve  the  soil 

as  deep  as  possible  at  least  two  months  before  the  seed  is 
sown,  though  the  plowing  or  disking  immediately  before  seed- 
ing should  be  as  shallow  as  possible  to  make  a  good  seed  bed.  If 
the  ground  is  plowed  deep  just  before  seeding,  the  roots  of  the 
fall-sown  seed  are  likely  to  be  pulled  out  by  frost,  while  the 
spring-sown  seed  is  sure  to  suffer  more  from  drouth  than  when 
the  subsoil  has  been  well  compacted.  Seeding  may  be  done  in 
either  fall  or  spring,  though  fall  is  much  the  better  time  in  the 
South.  The  best  preparation  of  the  ground  is  by  plowing  deep 
in  the  spring  or  early  summer  after  a  crop  of  oats  has  been 
removed,  and  then  growing  a  crop  of  cowpeas  on  the  land.  As 
soon  as  the  peas  are  gathered,  in  August  or  September,  the 
ground  should  be  disked,  or  plowed  very  shallow,  and  then  har- 
rowed until  the  surface  is  fine  and  smooth,  the  seed  sown  at  the 
rate  of  about  twenty  pounds  per  acre,  and  covered  with  a  light 
harrow  or  a  roller.    The  Arabian  and  the  Peruvian  are  the  best 


56 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  57 

varieties  for  use  in  the  South,  and  it  is  alwaj^s  economical  to  use 
the  very  best  seed  which  can  be.  found,  eVen  though  it  is  high 
in  price,  as  low-priced  seed  is  always  low  in  vitality,  and  is 
usually  badly  mixed  with  seeds  of  troublesome  weeds.  Inocula- 
tion is  needed  on  most  soils  excepting  those  on  which  melilotus 
or  burr  clover  has  been  grown  within  the  last  two  years.  Inocula- 
tion may  be  given  either  with  soil  from  a  field  on  which  alfalfa, 
melilotus  or  burr  clover  is  growing,  or  by  using  the  inoculating 
material  which  is  furnished  by  most  seedsmen,  and  often  by  the 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  Soil  inoculation  is  preferable, 
and  is  accomplished  by  scattering  soil  from  the  old  over  the  new 


Hairy  vetch  and  sorghum  cane  produce  an  abundance 
of  forage 

field  at  the  rate  of  about  200  pounds  per  acre.  This  should  be 
done  just  before  the  seed  is  sown,  and  the  ground  harrowed 
immediately,  as  exposure  to  a  hot  sun  or  a  drying  wind  will  soon 
kill  the  bacteria  in  the  inoculating  soil.  If  soil  is  not  available, 
it  is  best  to  use  the  material  sent  out  by  seedsmen,  who  give  full 
directions  for  its  use. 

Lespedera— Though  an  annual  legume,  lespedeza  re-seeds  so 
freely  that  it  is  usually  treated  as  a  perennial.  It  grows  best  on 
a  rich,  clay  loam,  where  it  reaches  a  height  of  two  feet  or  more 
and  makes  a  yield  of  two  or  three  tons  per  acre  of  hay  worth 
fully  as  much  as  that  from  red  clover.  It  will  also  grow  on  very 
dry,  hard  clay  along  roadsides  and  other  waste  places,  but  there 
its  growth  is  so  flat  and  spreading  that  it  cannot  be  cut  for  hay, 


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58 


FOB  BETTER  CBOPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  59 

though  it  makes  fine  grazing.  When  wanted  for  hay,  it  is 
usually  sown  with  winter  oats,  the  oats  being  sown  in  September 
or  October  and  grazed  through  the  winter.  About  February 
the  field  is  harrowed  and  the  lespedeza  seed  is  sown  at  the  rate  of 
half  a  bushel  per  acre;  the  oats  are  harvested  in  May,  after 
which  the  lespedeza  makes  a  vigorous  growth  and  is  ready  for 
cutting  in  October.  Though  it  re-seeds  the  ground  so  freely  it 
never  becomes  a  troublesome  weed,  as  it  is  killed  by  a  single 
plowing  at  any  time  before  the  seed  ripens. 

Gowpeas — As  said  before,  temporary  hay  fields  are  more 
common  in  the  South  than  are  permanent  meadows,  as  the  grow- 
ing season  is  so  long  that  it  is  often  possible  to  secure  a  good  hay 
crop  when  the  field  is  not  needed  for  other  crops.  The  most 
important  of  these  annual  hay  crops  is  thecowpea,  some  varieties 


Cowi»eaa  ready  for  the  thresher 

of  which  will  make  a  good  yield  of  hay  during  any  two  months 
of  warm  weather,  while  other  varieties  may  be  used  to  occupy 
the  ground  through  the  entire  season.  All  varieties  will  mature 
if  sown  after  oats  or  other  early  crops  have  been  harvested,  and 
all  mature  so  early  that  the  land  may  be  used  for  the  fall  sowing 
of  wheat,  oats,  alfalfa,  or  other  winter-growing  crops.  A  large 
part  of  the  crop  is  grown  in  cornfields,  the  seed  being  planted 
when  the  corn  is  being  given  its  last  cultivation.  The  peas  do 
not  interfere  with  the  growth  of  the  corn,  and  after  the  corn  is 
gathered  a  good  crop  of  hay  is  secured  which  has  cost  nothing 
but  for  the  planting  and  gathering.  Of  course  this  hay  is  mixed 
with  the  cornstalks  and  the  weeds  which  may  have  grown  since 
cultivation  ceased,  and  is  rough  and  coarse,  but  of  high  quality, 
and  makes  one  of  the  best  of  feeds.  Mules  fed  on  this  hay,  with 
no  grain  feed,  go  through  the  winter  in  fine  condition,  and  there 


60 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


is  no  better  feed  for  milch  cows.  When  cowpeas  are  grown 
alone,  the  yield  is  much  larger  than  when  grown  with  corn,  the 
hay  is  finer  and  of  still  better  quality,  but  is  more  expensive  as 
the  ground  is  making  no  other  crop  at  the  same  time.  The 
cowpea  is  one  of  the  best  fertilizing  and  renovating  crops,  and 
its  effects  on  the  soil  fully  repay  the  cost  of  planting  and  culti- 
vation, leaving  the  hay  crop  as  clear  profit.  Any  land  which  has 
made  a  good  yield  of  cowpea  hay  is  always  in  an  ideal  condition 
for  the  production  of  any  other  crop  the  following  season;  and 
there  is  no  other  summer  crop  which  is  better  for  preparing  the 
ground  for  oats,  alfalfa,  or  any  other  crop  to  be  sown  in  the  fall. 

Planting  may  be  done  at  any  time  from  April  until  July, 
and  the  amount  of  seed  needed  varies  with  the  time  and  method 
of  planting.    When  sown  broadcast,  or  in  corn  at  its  last  culti- 


A  modern  movrer  cutting  hairy  -Fetch 


vation,  one  bushel  per  acre  is  commonly  used ;  but  when  sown 
in  drills  half  that  amount  is  sufficient ;  and  when  any  of  the 
strong-growing,  long-season  varieties  are  sown  in  the  spring  not 
more  than  a  peck  per  acre  is  required. 

Soy  Beans— Of  more  recent  introduction,  soy  beans  promise 
to  become  almost  as  important  as  cowpeas,  as  they  produce  seed 
more  freely;  some  varieties  are  equally  good  for  hay,  and  all  are 
equally  good  in  their  effect  on  the  soil.  Of  these  there  are  two 
principal  *types :  one  has  a  heavy,  erect  stem  with  few  branches 
and  is  too  coarse  for  good  hay,  but  produces  an  immense  yield  of 
seed;  while  the  other  makes  numerous  long  and  slender  branches 
which  are  fine  for  hay,  but  which  produce  less  seed  than  the  erect 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  61 

sorts.  The  Mammoth  Yellow  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  erect 
types,  and  the  Barchet  of  the  branching  varieties.  The  latter 
are  usually  more  satisfactory  in  the  extreme  South. 

In  seeding  soy  beans,  the  crop  should  always  be  planted  in 
drills  and  given  one  or  two  cultivations,  as  it  does  not  succeed 
as  well  as  cowpeas  when  sown  broadcast.  The  main  crop 
should  be  planted  at  about  the  same  time  as  cotton,  from  two 
to  three  pecks  of  seed  being  used  per  acre.  When  some  of  the 
short-season  varieties  are  used,  either  for  an  early  crop  or  for 
planting  late  in  summer,  about  a  bushel  of  seed  should  be  used, 
as  the  rows  can  be  put  much  closer  than  with  the  larger  growing 
strains. 

Velvet  Bean  —Along  the  Gulf  coast  and  for  some  distance 
farther  north  the  velvet  bean  has  recently  become  an  important 
forage  crop,  especially  for  winter  grazing.  It  makes  a  much 
heavier  growth  than  does  either  the  cowpea  or  the  soy  bean,  and 


Stacking  alfalfa  hay 

the  vines  and  beans  give  good  grazing  through  the  winter,  but 
it  must  be  planted  early  in  the  spring,  and  so  occupies  the 
ground  through  the  entire  season. 

To  plant  an  acre  one  peck  of  velvet  beans  will  answer  when 

planted  carefully  by  themselves,  on  good  ground;   but  when 

planted  on  very  thin  soils,  or  with  corn,  it  is  better  to  use  a 
bushel  per  acre. 

Sorghum— Another  forage  crop  of  great  value,  especially  in 
southern  Texas  and  southern  Florida,  where  it  furnishes  a  good 
part  of  the  hay  for  home  use  is  sorghum.  The  hay  is  coarse, 
but  of  good  quality,  and  as  the  crop  has  a  long  season  of  growth 
it  makes  about  three  cuttings,  with  often  a  yield  of  ten  tons 
per  acre. 

In  planting  sorghum  it  is  usually  best  to  plant  the  crop 
early,  at  about  the  time  corn  is  planted,  a  bushel  per  acre  being 


62  FOB  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

used  when  sown  broadcast,  though  when  in  drills  and  cultivated, 
one-third  that  amount  is  sufficient. 

Other  Grasses  and  Clovers  Flourish — Many  other  forage 
crops  are  grown,  among  them  Dal  lis  grass  which  is  grown  from 
northern  Georgia  westward  to  northern  Mississippi,  and  which 
not  only  makes  a  heavy  yield  of  hay  similar  to  that  of  timothy, 
but  Is  also  one  of  the  best  winter  pasture  grasses.  The  so-called 
Mexican  clover  is  not  a  true  clover,  but  is  a  volunteer  crop  which 
furnishes  great  amounts  of  both  hay  and  pasture  in  southern 
Georgia,  'Alabama  and  Florida.  Beggar  weed  flourishes  on  all 
the  sandy  soils  near  the  coast,  where  it  springs  up  in  the  corn 
and  cotton  fields  after  the  crops  are  laid  by,  and  enables  the 
dairyman  to  make  good  "June"  butter  in  January.  Texas  and 
Florida  growers  make  six  to  ten  tons  of  hay  per  acre  from  para 


Baling  hay  -w^ithout  horses 

grass,  and  the  despised  crab-grass  of  the  North  often  makes  two 
tons  of  hay  per  acre  as  a  volunteer  crop,  costing  nothing  but 
the  cutting.  Melilotus,  the  "sweet  clover"  of  the  North,  covers 
thousands  of  acres  of  the  lime  lands  and  makes  a  hay  which 
can  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  alfalfa.  The  vetches,  burr 
and, crimson  clovers,  guinea  grass,  cassava,  and  many  others 
might  be  mentioned,  but  enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  no 
other  part  of  the  country  has  a  greater  variety  or  more  produc- 
tive and  profitable  kinds  of  forage  crops  than  are  to  be  found  in 
the  South. 

For  further  information  on  forage  crops  for  the  South, 
write  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Division  of  Publi- 
cations, Washington,  D.  C,  for  Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  89,  102, 
147,  300,  312,  318,  339  and  372. 


exas  rever 


Tick 


By  Dr.  Mark  Francis, 

Professor  of  Veterinary  Science,  Texas  Agricultural  College 


For  many  years  it  has  been  generally 
known  that  if  cattle  raised  in  what  are 
known  as  the  Northern  States  be  taken 
south  into  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
States,  after  a  few  weeks  they  become 
sick  and  die  of  an  obscure  disease  called 
"acclimation fever,"  "bloody  murrain," 
or  "Texas  fever." 

Not  Confined  to  a  Small  District— This 

disease  is  widely  distributed,  affecting 
cattle  in  all  parts  of  the  torrid  and  sub- 
temperate  zones  having  a  low  altitude. 
The  disease  is  due  to  the  invasion  and  destruction  of  the  red 
blood  corpuscles  by  a  minute  animal  parasite  of  the  same  gen- 
eral character  as  the  malarial  organism  of  man.  It  is  conveyed 
from  one  animal  to  another  by  the  Cattle  Tick  only.  These  two 
facts  are  the  essential  features  of  this  subject,  and  should  be 
kept  in  mind. 

How  the  Disease  Is  Propagated— The  blood  of  most  cattle 
that  have  been  raised  in  the  Gulf  states  contains  these  para- 
sites, though  the  animals  may  appear  to  be  in  good  health.  If 
the  common  ticks  {Boophilus  annulatus)  mature  on  these  infected 
cattle,  their  progeny  will  be  virulent  and  be  capable  of  infecting 
any  cattle  which  are  not  immune  to  the  disease  in  question. 
When  the  female  cattle  tick  matures,  it  falls  to  the  ground,  and 
crawls  to  some  dark  and  suitable  place  to  deposit  its  eggs.  In 
ten  days  or  so,  she  will  have  produced  about  two  thousand  eggs. 
She  then  dies.  Some  species  of  tick  produce  several  crops  of 
eggs,  but  this  one  lays  eggs  but  once. 

This  simple  fact  is  important,  as  it  greatly  simplifies  the 
problem  of  tick  eradication  to  be  mentioned  later.  The  eggs 
which  have  been  laid  will  hatch  in  three  or  four  weeks  if  the 
weather  conditions  be  favorable.  In  winter  it  may  be  several 
months  before  the  eggs  hatch.  The  young  ticks  have  but  six 
legs.  We  call  them  larvae.  They  crawl  up  on  the  grass  or  weeds 
and  simply  wait  until  some  animal  passes  their  way,  to  which 
they  can  attach  themselves  and  secure  blood  which  seems  neces- 
sary for  their  development.  If  no  cattle  or  other  suitable  animal 
happens  to  give  them  this  opportunity,  they  perish  for  lack  of 

63 


64 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


food.    It  is  remarkable,  however,  that  they  may  live  four  to  six 

months  without  apparent  source  of  food. 

If  they  find  an  opportunity  to  attach  themselves  to  -eattle, 

they  do  so,  moult  several  times, 
copulate,  and  when  mature,  the 
adult  female  drops  to  the 
ground,  lays  her  eg-g-s,  and  dies. 
All  this  is  familiar  enough  to 
every  one  who  has  lived  in  the 
South,  but  the  astonishing  thing 
about  it  is  that  the  parasites  of 
the  blood  should  be  transferred 
from  one  cow  to  another  in  this 
way  and  give  rise  to  a  very  seri- 
ous trouble  that  is  costing  the 
country  millions  of  doliaxs  in 
losses  every  year. 


The  Seed  Tick 


After  hatching  it  savings  Irom 
spears  of  grass,  and  attaches 
itself  upon  passing  cattle.  If 
no  cattle  give  it  succor  it  ^vill 
die  of  starvation  in  about  four 
months  in  summer,  but  in  winter 
it  remains  dormant.  By  taking 
advantage  of  this  fact,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  free  a  herd  of  the  tick 
in  a  comparatively  short  time. 


When  cattle  are  taken  South, 

these  young  infected  ticks  soon 
find  them  and  attach  themselves 
to  get  blood.    In  some  way  that 

is  not  well  understood  yet,  they  infect  the  cow's  blood  with  the 

germs  of  Texas  fever. 

In  about  ten  days  the  cow  becomes  sick,  has  high    fever, 

say  105«  to  107 <^,  refuses  to  eat,  and  the 

milk  stops  suddenly.    This  continues 

several  days  with  constipation,  great  weak- 
ness, and  often  bloody  urine  and  death. 

Among  mature  cattle  the  death  rate  may 

be  90  per  cent  or  more.    Among  calves  we 

find   they  survive  as  a  rule.    Yearlings 

become  very  sick,  but  60  per  cent  or  more 

survive.    These  often  become  thin,  weak 

and  stunted,  but  are  immune  for  life. 


There  is  no  Medicine  that  -will  Cure 
this  Disease  —  If  we  examine  a  dead  ani- 
mal we  find  ticks  on  the  body;  the  fat  is 
yellow;  the  blood,  very  thin  and  watery 
from  extensive  destruction  of  the  corpus- 
cles; the  spleen  enormously  enlarged;  and 
usually  the  bladder  contains  bloody  colored 
urine.  We  have  no  medicines  that  cure 
this  disease.  If  we  give  a  large  dose  of 
Epsom  salts,  say  two  to  three  pounds,  to  a 
1,000-pound   cow   early  in  the  attack,  it 

often  cleans  out  the  bowels  and  enables  the  cow  to  throw  off 
her    waste   products  and  thus  saves  her  life.     Medicines    to 


The  Female  Tick  and 
Its  Eggs 

One  tick  is  capable 
of  laying  4,000  eggs 
-H^ithin  a  w^eek's  time. 
In  summer  the  eggs 
hatch  in  about  three 
-weeks,  'H'hile  in  fall 
and  -w^inter  they  w^ill 
lie  dormant. 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


65 


"reduce  the  fever,  "  are  unsafe  and  positively  dangerous  to  use 
because  the  heart  is  usually  involved. 

When  the  fever  falls,  v^e  must  be  very  careful,  because  the 
animal  is  then  very  vi^eak.  We  seem  to  get  good  results  from 
stimulants,  say  small  doses  of  whiskey  and  tincture  of  nux 
vomica,  but  these  must  be  given  v^^ith  great  care  and  modera- 
tion. In  a  week  or  so  the  animals  regain  much  of  their  lost 
flesh  and  spirit  and  appear  to  be  entirely  well  again.  It  is  quite 
usual,  however,  to  find  relapses  after  some  weeks.  These  may 
be  frequent  and  severe  enough  to  bring  about  extreme  emacia- 
tion, weakness,  drowsiness,  and  an  unthrifty  condition  that  may 

require  a  year  or  more  to  fully 
pass  off.  In  such  instances,  the 
animal  often  becomes  stunted 
for  life. 

Ho>v  to  Prepare  Cattl^  that 
are  to  be  taken  South  —  If  you 
decide  to  take  some  cattle.  South, 
take  the  matter  up  with  your 
experiment  station  some  months 
in  advance,  so  that  you'  may 
follow  out  a  definite  working 
plan.  The  following  one  suc- 
ceed^ quite  well: 

About  April  or  May  select  a 
suitable  pasture  of  say  tenirto 
twenty-five  acres  and  allow  no 
native^  cattle  to  enter  it  from 
that  date.  A  field  that  is  in 
cultivation  will  answer.  See 
that  it  is  fenced  in  a  substantial 
manner.  About  October  plow 
up  several  acres  and  plant  oats 
or  a  mixture  of  wheat  and  rye 
so  as  to  have  green  winter  pas- 
ture. Provide  suitable  barns  and  shed  room,  and  a  reliable  water 
supply.  About  December  or  January  buy  young  cattle,  say  from 
ten  to  eighteen  months  of  age,  and  have  them  shipped  south 
in  a  clean,  disinfected  car,  without  unloading  until  they  reach 
their  destination.  They  must  be  fed  and  watered  in  the  car 
and  some  reliable  man  must  accompany  them  to  see  that  these 
essentials  are  strictly  observed.  You  must  not  permit  them 
to  be  unloaded  into  stock  pens  along  the  route. 

In  case  you  buy  only  one  or  two  animals  they  should  be  crated 
and  sent  by  express.  When  they  reach  your  depot,  load  them 
onto  the  wagon  directly  from  the  car  and  haul  to  the  pasture 
you  prepared  some  months  previously.  You  should  not  buy 
adult  cattle,    as  the  death   rate   is   very  high  among  them. 


Engorged  Female  Tick 

By  feeding  upon  the  nourish- 
ing blood  of  the  cow,  the  female 
tick  reaches  maturity.  It  then 
falls  to  the  ground  -where  it  de- 
posits its  eggs,  thus  greatly  in- 
creasing the  number  of  cattle 
ticks. 


66 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


How  to  Inoculate— In  a  day  or  so  vaccinate  them  for  black- 
leg. After  they  have  rested  a  week  or  so,  they  may  be  inoculated 
for  Texas  fever.    Proceed  as  follows:    Halter  the  calves  and  tie 


The  Texas  fever  tick  aa  it  appears  on  infested  cattle 


them  in  a  row  to  the  fence,  or  have  them  in  a  small  pen  so  you 
can  treat  them  rapidly.  Now  go  among  your  native  cattle  and 
select  a  young,  healthy  one,  say  two  or  three  years  of  age  that 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  67 

has  some  ticks  on  it.  Secure  it  with  ropes  so  it  can't  struggle 
much.  Tie  a  heavy  hemp  twine  around  its  neck  tightly,  so  that 
the  jugular  vein  will  become  distended  with  blood.  Force  the 
needle  of  a  large,  clean,  sterile  hypodermic  syringe  into  the  vein 
and  fill  the  syringe  with  blood.  Withdraw  the  needle,  and 
immediately  inject  about  one-half  drachm  of  the  blood  under 
the  skin  of  each  calf.  It  is  important  to  have  enough  labor  at 
hand  so  that  you  can  do  this  rapidly  and  accurately.  It  is  very 
easy  during  the  hurry  to  overlook  a  calf  or  to  give  one  two  doses 
of  blood  if  you  have  not  each  one  haltered  and  tied.  No  sickness 
will  be  noticed  for  about  eight  to  ten  days.  About  this  time 
you  will  find  a  marked  fever,  running  from  103. 5<*  to  106®.  The 
calves  will  refuse  to  eat,  lie  down  most  of  the  time,  and  in  severe 


Tick  infected  steer— August  12,  1911.     Weight.  730  pounds 

cases  pass  bloody  urine  and  some  of  them  may  die.  This  fever 
period  lasts  three  to  six  days  as  a  rule,  and  then  passes  off.  The 
important  thing  to  do  is  to  keep  the  bowels  active.  To  do  this 
we  pasture  them  on  green  stuff,  and  if  there  be  some  indications 
of  constipation  we  give  a  large  dose  of  salts,  say  one-half  to  one 
pound.  About  the  30th  day  after  inoculation  a  second  fever 
period  begins,  which  is  very  similar  to  the,first  one.  We  expect 
it  and  handle  the  calves  as  before.  It  is  usually  fifty  to  sixty 
days  before  the  calves  are  strong  enough  to  permit  the  ticks  to 
attack  them.  During  the  spring  months  we  let  them  mingle 
freely  with  Southern  cattle  and  ticks,  but  about  May  or  June  it 
is  best  to  keep  them  to  themselves  until  October  and  feed  them 
once  a  day.  We  find  one-half  pound  of  cotton-seed  meal  per  day 
is  enough  for  a  calf  weighing  500  to  800  pounds.  A  compilation 
of  the  work  done  by  the  Southern  experiment  stations  shows 


68  FOR  BETTER  CHOPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


that  by  this  plan  of  treatment  and  management  it  is  quite  easy 
to  save  over  90  per  cent  of  Northern  cattle.  This  is  now  a 
demonstrated  fact  and  can  be  accepted  w^ith  confidence,  and 
positively  shows  that  breeders  are  justified  in  buying  strictly 
first-class  animals  to  improve  the  native  stock. 

Extermination  of  Tick  —  There  are  two  ways  of  dealing  with 
the  tick:  Either  exterminate  him  by  simply  starving  him  to 
death  while  he  is  in  the  larva  stage,  which  requires  only  four  to 
six  months,  or  destroy  him  while  on  the  body  of  the  cattle.  The 
former  is  the  simplest,  cheapest,  and  most  efficient  method.  It 
seems  too  simple  to  be  of  real  value.  A  review  of  the  life  his- 
tory of  the  tick  suggests  the  thing  to  do.  It  is  this:  Simply 
turn  all  cattle  out  of  pasture  A,  into  pasture  B.    From  B  mov? 


Same  steer  free  of  ticks— October  12,    1911.     Weight,   1,015  pounds 

• 

them  into  C,  from  C  to  D.  Now  time  this  so  it  will  be  about 
six  months  before  you  return  to  A.  A  moment's  study  will  show 
that  you  leave  the  ticks  behind  to  perish  of  starvation  before  you 
return  the  cattle  to  them.  Every  one  who  is  at  all  familiar  with 
the  tick  has  noticed  that  there  are  times  when  there  are  very 
few  or  almost  no  tickg  on  cattle.  This  is  important,  as  this  is 
exactly  the  time  to  move  to  a  clean  pasture.  Cattle  men  are 
very  reluctant  to  disturb  their  animals  at  such  times,  but  this 
is  the  time  to  move. 

A  great  many  suggestions  have  been  made  about  feeding 
cattle  sulphur  and  other  things  to  cause  the  ticks  to  fall  off. 
These  are  of  little  or  no  value.  There  are  several  types  of 
medicines  to  be  applied  to  the  cow's  skin  to  kill  the  tick: 

1st.    Grease  or  oil  of  any  kind  is  very  fatal  to  ticks.    Lard, 


70 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


cotton-seed  oil,  or  crude  petroleum  may  be  applied  with  success. 

2nd.  Sometimes  the  rosin  oil  emulsions  of  crude  carbolic 
acid,  of  about  a  5  per  cent  strength  are  used.  These  preparations 
kill  the  tick  fairly  well,  but  are  not  very  stable,  are  volatile,  and 
very  irritating*  if  used  too  strong. 

3rd.  Solutions  of  arsenic  are  now  used  with  great  success. 
The  following  is  the  formula  given  by  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry: 

ARSENICAL  CATTLE  DIP. 


(See  Bureau  An.  Ind.  Order  No.  168) 


Powered  White  Arsenic 
Sal  Soda  -       - 

Pine  Tar         -       - 


10  pounds 

25  pounds 

1  gallon 


A  dipping  vat  showing  liquid  in  place  ready  for  use 


Boil  the  arsenic  and  sal  soda  together  for  at  least,  fifteen  min- 
utes, or  longer,  in  at  least  twenty-five  gallons  of  water,  until  all 
the  arsenic  is  dissolved.  Remove  from  the  tire  and  cool  by  adding 
water  to  reduce  the  temperature  to  140  degrees  F.,  then  add  the 
tar  slowly,  in  a  fine  stream,  stirring  vigorously  while  doing  so. 
Then  add  water  enough  to  make  up  the  whole  500  gallons.  It 
is  now  ready  for  use. 

A  Dipping  Vat  is  Very  Essential— The  arsenic  dip  may  be 
applied  with  a  spray  apparatus,  or  a  large  dipping  vat  may  be 
built,  which  will  permit  the  treatment  of  2,000  head  of  wild 
range  cattle  per  day. 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


71 


The  arsenic  preparations  are  somewhat  slow  in  their  action, 
so  that  if  cattle  be  examined,  say,  forty-eight  hours  after  dipping, 
some  ticks  may  be  yet  alive,  but  as  a  rule  they  have  received  a 
fatal  dose  that  causes  their  death. 


Dipping  vat  on  I  H  C  demonstration  farm  at 
Brookhaven,  Mississippi 

Special  bulletins,  giving  further  details  about  these  matters, 
and  plans  and  specifications  for  building  vats  are  issued  by  a 
number  of  the  Southern  experiment  stations.  In  a  small  booklet 
of  this  kind,  only  the  merest  outline  of  this  great  problem  can 
be  presented. 


72 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  THE 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  A 

CATTLE  DIPPING 

VAT 

The  site  selected  for  the  vat 
should  be  dry.  The  excavation 
should  be 

Seven  feet  deep. 

Twenty-seven  feet  long  at  the 
top. 

Thirteen  feet  long  at  the  bot- 
tom. 

Four  feet  wide  at  the  top. 

Thirty  inches  wide  at  the  bot- 
tom. 

The  walls  and  floor  should  be 
six  inches  thick.  The  wooden 
frames  should  be  constructed  of 
2x4  inch  braces,  on  the  outside  of 
which  1-inch  boards  are  tacked. 
After  the  concrete  has  set,  take 
out  frame,  and  plaster  inside  of  vat 
with  a  mixture  of  1  part  cement 
and  2  parts  sand.  The  walls  of  the 
vat  should  be  built  one  foot  above 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  The 
slide  where  the  cattle  go  into  the 
vat  should  be  three  feet  long  with 
a  fall  of  two  feet.  The  concrete 
should  be  made  as  follows 

Cement        -       -       -  .1  part 
Sand    -       -       -       -      2i  parts 
Gravel  or  Broken  Rock  5  parts 

all  thoroughly  mixed. 

The  dipping  vat  should  be  cov- 
ered with  a  shed  and  provided  with 
convenient  pens,  chute,  and  drip- 
ping pen. 


Growing  Rice  in  the  South 


By   F.  C.  Quereau 

Assistant   Director,    Rice  Experiment  Station,  Crowley,  La. 


There  is  no  doubt  but  that  rice  is  the 
greatest  cereal  food  in  the  world.  It 
has  been  the  principal  food  of  Oriental 
races  for  thousands  of  years,  and  even 
in  modern  times  it  furnishes  a  staple 
food  for  a  greater  proportion  of  the 
world's  population  than  all  other  cereals 
combined.  Famine  in  the  Eastern  coun- 
tries is  always  associated  with  a  failure 
of  the  rice  crop.  Rice  has  no  superior  as 
a  carbohydrate  food  because  the  starch 
of  properly  prepared  rice  is  in  an  easily 
digested  form,  and  when  combined  with  meat  or  beans  forms  a 
well-balanced,  energy-producing  ration.  The  population  of  any 
given  section  or  country  is  in  direct  ratio  to  the  food  supply. 
We  cannot,  therefore,  have  better  proof  of  the  food  value  of 
rice  than  in  the  almost  marvelous  density  of  the  population  of 
Indo-China  and  Japan.  It  is  worthy  of  note,  also,  that  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  has  been  maintained,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  food  ration  balanced  by  the  use  of  the  soy  bean  in  rotation 
with  rice. 

Development  of  Rice  Growing  —Prior  to  1890,  the  rice  pro- 
duction of  the  United  States  was  largely  restricted  to  the  Caro- 
linas  where  it  has  been  cultivated  since  1694,  when  it  was 
Introduced  from  Madagascar  by  an  English  sea  captain.  The 
alluvial  prairies  of  southwest  Louisiana  and  Texas  up  to  the 
year  1888  were  the  home  of  deer  and  wild  fowl,  and  the  range  of 
the  long-horn  Texas  steer.  The  native  French  settlers  lived  in 
isolated  communities  along  the  wooded  rivers  and  bayous. 
These  people  maintained  themselves  largely  by  cattle  raising, 
hunting,  and  trapping.  They  produced  corn  in  small  quantity 
which  was  ground  into  meal  in  primitive  mills.  Rice  and  meat 
was  the  staple  food.  The  rice  was  planted  in  small  patches 
in  the  coulee  or  slough  bottoms.  These  low  lands  were  generally 
dry  in  the  early  spring,  at  which  time  they  were  plowed  and  the 
rice  sown  broadcast  and  harrowed  in  with  a  wooden  tooth  har- 
row.   Oxen  furnished  the  motive  power. 

If  the  season  chanced  to  be  wet,  the  rice  was  sprouted  and 
planted  in  the  mud.  The  field  was  leveed  with  a  small  embank- 
ment, and  the  crop  was  irrigated  by  the  natural  rainfall.    If  the 

73 


74  FOB  BETTER  CBOPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

season  was  dry  little  rice  was  raised.  The  annual  rainfall  of 
over  fifty  inches  was,  however,  usually  sufficient  and  rice  seldom 
f«ailed  to  produce  some  sort  of  a  crop.  This  method  of  irrigation 
was  called  "  Providence." 

The  rice  was  harvested  in  October  with  a  reaping  hook,  car- 
ried out  on  high  land  and  shocked ;  when  cured,  it  was  placed 
in  stacks  and  threshed  with  a  flail  or  "tramped"  out  as  re- 
quired during  the  year.  Each  day  or  week  the  supply  of  rice 
for  the  family  was  milled  or  husked  by  beating  it  in  a  mortar 
with  a  wooden  pestle.  The  mortar  was  made  by  setting  a  sec- 
tion of  a  gum  log  on  end  and  burning  or  chiseling  a  hollow  in 
the  top.  The  grinding  of  the  rough  husks  soon  made  the 
mortar  clean  and  smooth.  The  rice  when  hulled  was  winnowed 
clean;  was  then  ready  for  cooking  with  meat  or  game.  In  this 
way  the  full  food  value  of  the  rice  was  conserved  as  none  of  the 


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A  reliable  means  of  supplying  water  lor  rioe  ^row^in^ 

outer  cuticle  or  the  germ  end,  which  contains  the  greater  part  of 
the  protein  and  fat,  was  removed.  Unpolished  rice  is  much 
superior  to  the  milled  article,  consequently  much  of  the  rice 
consumed  in  the  rice  belt  is  husked  in  the  country  mill.  Native 
rice,  wild  duck,  gumbo-fille,  and  Jambalyia  prepared  by  a  Creole 
chef  are  dishes  that  will  appeal  to  the  epicure. 

Immigration  to  the  Rice  Districts— In  the  late  '80s,  North- 
ern people  commenced  to  settle  in  this  section,  purchasing  land 
from  the  state  and  federal  governments.  They  brought  with 
them  the  modern  tools  of  Northern  agriculture.  It  was  found, 
however,  that  the  natural  drainage  was  not  sufficient,  and  that 
the  wild  prairie  soils  were  not  at  that  time  adapted  to  the  high 
land  crops  of  the  West,  and  that  rice  was  the  logical  crop.  This 
they  planted  in  the  low  lands  of  the  coulees  and  flats,  and 
endeavored  to  adapt  labor-saving  machines  to  the  exigency  of 
the  situation,  depending  upon  "Providence"  to  furnish  the 
necessary  water.    But  the  rainfall  could  not  be  depended  upon 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  75 

during  all  seasons  to  furnish  sufficient  water  to  produce  rice 
except  upon  small  irregular  areas,  and  the  labor  of  working  in 
the  mud  of  such  low  areas  was  very  great.  For  about  five  years, 
or  up  to  1895,  the  existence  of  the  rice  farmer  was  a  precarious 
one.  In  desperation  he  decided  to  pump  the  water  from  the 
streams  into  canals  made  by  throwing  up  two  embankments 
from  50  to  100  feet  apart,  taking  the  dirt  from  the  middle  and 
thus  carrying  the  water  above  the  surface  of  the  ground  so  that 
it  could  be  let  out  through  flumes  into  the  fields  or  laterals. 
These  canals  were  a  complete  success.  Of  water  there  was  an 
abundance,  and  it  was  only  necessary  to  lift  it  from  ten  to  thirty 
feet  from  the  stream  into  the  canals  in  which  it  could  be  carried 
for  as  much  as  twenty  miles  at  a  height  of  from  two  and  one- 
half  to  six  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  land  to  be  irrigated. 
Rice  could  be  irrigated  at  a  cost  of  from  $3  to  $6  per  acre,  and 
with  irrigation,  the  crop  was  absolutely  certain.  The  virgin 
soils  which  represented  a  deposit  1,800  feet  deep  with  from  six 
inches  to  three  or  four  feet  of  black  surface  soil,  would  produce 
from  sixteen  to  twenty  barrels  (of  162  lbs.)  of  rice,  worth  from 
three  to  four  dollars  per  barrel. 

There  ensued  a  development  in  Louisiana  and  Texas  com- 
parable only  to  that  of  the  irrigated  districts  of  California. 
Within  seven  years  from  the  completion  of  the  first  canals, 
almost  every  foot  of  land,  that  could  be  irrigated,  was  under 
cultivation  for  rice.  Roads  were  built,  drains  were  opened, 
railroads  came,  towns  and  rice  mills  were  built,  and  land  values 
jumped  from  $1.25  to  $40  and  $60  per  acre.  The  production  of 
rice  in  this  section  increased  from  a  few  thousand  to  6,000,000 
barrels  per  year.  Canals  were  extended  so  that  the  entire 
country  is  now  under  irrigation. 

Early  in  the  development  of  the  rice  industry  it  was  found 
that  there  is  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  underground  water. 
At  a  depth  of  from  225  to  300  feet  is  a  stratum  of  water-bearing 
gravel  from  forty  to  seventy-five  feet  in  thickness.  When  this 
is  tapped  by  a  12-inch  pipe  fitted  with  proper  screen,  the  water 
rises  to  a  point  varying  from  twenty  feet  below  the  surface  to 
above  the  ground,  depending  upon  the  location  in  distance  from 
the  coast.  When  pumped  with  a  centrifugal  pump  a  12-inch 
well  will  irrigate  from  250  to  300  acres  of  rice.  The  oil  wells  of 
this  section  furnish  an  abundance  of  fuel  oil  for  the  irrigation 
pumping  plants. 

Varieties  of  Rice  — There  are  a  very  large  number  of  varie- 
ties of  rice,  differing  in  shape  and  color  of  the  grain,  in  the  time 
required  to  mature  and  in  the  relative  proportions  of  food  nutri- 
ents—carbohydrates, protein  and  fat.  There  are  probably  more 
than  2,000  distinct  varieties  of  rice.  The  three  principal  varie- 
ties or  types  grown  in  the  United  States  are  the  Carolina  Gold, 
the  Honduras,  and  the  Japan. 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  77 

The  Carolina  Gold  rice  is  large  of  grain,  very  hard  and 
flinty,  and  the  outer  husk  is  golden-yellow  in  color,  hence  its 
name.  The  grain  does  not  shatter  from  the  straw  easily  during 
storms  which  are  so  prevalent  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  It  has 
superseded  all  other  varieties  in  the  Carolinas,  but  it  does  not 
seem  to  enjoy  the  same  degree  of  popularity  in  the  rice  belt  of 
Louisiana  and  Texas— in  fact  in  the  latter  section  it  is  but 
little  grown. 

Honduras  rice  which  takes  its  name  from  the  country  where 
it  originated,  requires  less  time  to  mature  than  the  Japanese 
varieties.  The  straw  is  tall,  the  grain  is  white,  both  as  to  husk 
and  kernel,  and  is  much  longer  and  smaller  than  the  Japan. 
The  straw  is  considerable  heavier  than  Japan  straw.  Honduras 
rice  does  not  contain  as  much  gluten  as  the  Japan,  consequently 
it  is  dryer  when  cooked  and  more  flakey,  and  the  grains  main- 
tain their  identity  better.  Honduras  commands  a  better  price, 
but  the  yield  per  acre  of  head  rice,  or  first  quality  milled  rice, 
is  not  so  large  as  that  of  the  Japanese  varieties. 

Japanese  rice  is  of  several  varieties,  the  general  character- 
istics being  short  straw,  a  short,  thick  kernel,  and  a  thin 
hull;  the  percentage  of  bran  and  polish,  the  by-products  of  rice 
milling,  is  not  so  high  as  in  the  Honduras.  The  grain  ripens 
when  the  straw  is  still  green,  and  as  the  latter  is  short  there  is 
little  danger  of  loss  of  crop  by  storms.  The  yield  of  head  rice  in 
the  mill  and  the  yield  per  acre  of  the  rough  is  greater  than  in 
the  case  of  the  Honduras,  but  the  market  price  per  pound  is 
generally  lower.  Japan  and  Honduras  seem  to  be  equally  popu- 
lar in  the  rice  belt;  the  one  matures  late  and  the  other  early, 
so  that  both  lend  themselves  to  the  requirements  of  the  rice 
farmer. 

Cultivation  of  Rice— Eice  cultivation  differs  but  little  from 
the  cultivation  of  wheat  in  the  West.  The  soil  is  alluvial  and 
does  not  become  boggy  when  wet.  A  self-binder  with  lugs  on 
the  bullwheel  will  do  good  work  in  six  inches  of  water.  Very 
little  if  any  work  of  planting  or  harvesting  is  done  on  wet  land. 

The  land  is  usually  plowed  with  the  12-inch  double,  or  with 
the  triple  gang.  The  steam  and  gasoline  tractor,  especially  the 
latter,  are  coming  into  use  in  rice  cultivation.  Four  horses  or 
mules  are  used  on  the  double  gang.  Land  should  be-  plowed  as 
deeply  as  possible  because  the  rice  roots,  even  in  clay  land,  pene- 
trate to  a  depth  of  fourteen  inches.  Five  or  six  inches  is  the 
average  depth  plowed.  Deepening  the  soil  should  be  done 
gradually  by  plowing  from  a  half  inch  to  one  and  a  half  inches 
deeper  each  season.  Where  it  is  possible,  plowing  for  rice  should 
be  done  in  the  fall  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  harvested.  In  this  way 
the  red  rice  (a  weed)  will  germinate,  and  the  land  will  be  exposed 


78  FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

to  the  air  and  rains— there  is  no  danger  of  soil  washing  on  the 
level  prairies  of  the  rice  belt. 

Fall  Plowing  eliminates  much  work  in  the  spring  and  insures 
a  better  crop.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  double  disk,  double 
harrow,  "float,"  or  roll  the  plowed  land,  after  which  the  seed  is 
planted  with  the  press  drill  in  8-inch  rows.  Many  different  drills 
have  been  tested,  but  the  most  popular  is  the  shoe-runner  drill 
with  large  press  wheels.  The  disk  drill  cannot  be  said  to  be  a 
good  implement  for  all  conditions  of  the  rice  soils.  Rice  may  be 
planted  in  this  section  from  the  middle  of  March  to  the  20th  of 
June.  After  drilling,  if  the  land  is  very  dry,  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
harrow  lightly.  When  the  rice  comes  up,  the  application  of  the 
one-horse  weeder  will  destroy  the  germinating  crab-grass  and 
weeds  and  be  a  benefit  to  the  rice. 


A  rice  field  in  Louisiana 

Applying  the  Water —After  the  rice  plant  is  out  of  the  ground 
and  has  developed  two  leaves  it  requires  more  than  eight  inches 
of  water  to  destroy  it,  but  strange  as  it  may  seem,  too  much 
rain  will  work  more  injury  to  a  germinating  rice  crop  than  it 
will  to  oats  at  the  same  state  of  development.  Water  is  not 
applied,  however,  until  the  plant  is  large  enough  to,  in  a  measure, 
shade  the  ground.  This,  however,  depends  upon  the  rainfall ;  if 
it  is  very  dry  so  that  the  rice  does  not  grow,  it  is  well  to  flood 
and  allow  the  water  to  drain  off  at  once. 

Rice  that  has  not  been  irrigated  will  stand  as  much  or  more 
drouth  than  oats;  and  if  the  land  is  reasonably  moist,  it  will 
make  a  good  growth  up  to  heading  time;  when  coming  into  head, 
however,  it  is  necessary,  In  order  to  insure  a  good  crop,  to 
cover  the  land  with  water.  Water  is  used  throughout  the  grow- 
ing season  because  it  makes  the  rice  grow  faster  and  keeps  down 
the  weeds  and  grass. 


79 


so  FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

The  fields  of  this  section  range  in  size  from  three  to  twenty 
acres;  the  average  size  Is  about  ten  acres.  An  embankment  or 
levee  is  made  around  the  field.  The  size  of  the  area  within  the 
levee  depends  upon  the  contour  of  the  land.  The  levees  are  so 
constructed  that  when  the  field  is  irrigated,  the  lowest  part  will 
have  not  more  than  eight  inches  and  the  highest  part  of  the  field 
less  than  two  inches  of  water.  The  lateral  from  the  main  canal 
is  run  on  the  highest  part  of  the  farm,  following  a  ridge  if  there 
be  one.    The  fields  or  cuts  are  laid  out  adjacent  to  the  lateral. 

If  the  weather  is  very  dry  it  is  good  practice  to  flood  the  fields 
along  the  lateral  all  the  levees  will  hold.  Do  this  rapidly — 
twelve  hours'  pumping  is  usually  sufficient — then  turn  the  water 
out  of  the  flooded  fields  down  onto  the  fields  below  and  so  into 
the  next  until  all  are  wet.  The  remaining  water  is  turned  into 
the  drains.  In  this  way  the  full  value  of  the  water  is  obtained 
with  as  little  waste  as  possible.  The  rice  will  grow  rapidly  and 
commence  to  stool  or  sucker.  When  it  becomes  dry  again, 
irrigate  as  before.  Eice  fields  having  once  been  flooded  should 
not  be  allowed  to  become  dry  enough  for  the  ground  to  crack  or 
injury  will  result.  When  the  plants  have  stooled  enough  to 
shade  the  ground  the  harvest  flow  should  be  put  on,  or  the  crop 
should  be  flooded  and  the  water  maintained  until  the  rice  is 
headed  in  the  fall.  The  water  should  be  drained  off  when  the 
rice  heads  commence  to  turn  down.  This,  however,  depends 
upon  the  season.  The  water  is  usually  turned  off  from  two  to 
three  weeks  before  the  crop  is  ripe,  in  order  to  allow  the  land  to 
become  dry  before  harvest.  The  harvest  in  the  rice  belt  com- 
mences late  in  August  for  the  Honduras;  the  Japan  is  seldom  all 
cut  before  the  middle  of  November. 

The  levees  are  built  with  the  plow,  the  grading  machine  or  a 
T-shaped  implement  called  a  "pusher"  which  is  constructed  on 
the  farm.  The  work  on  the  rice  farm  during  the  summer 
months  consists  in  distributing  water  and  watching  the  levees 
for  leaks. 

Harvesting  the  Crop— The  rice  crop  is  harvested  with  the 
self-binder.  This  is  similar  to  the  wheat  machine,  but  is  very 
much  heavier  in  construction.  The  wheels  are  boxed  in  with 
galvanized  iron  to  keep  out  the  mud.  The  bullwheel  is  fitted 
with  pointed  lugs  so  that  the  machine  will  operate  in  mud  and 
water  should  the  season  be  wet,  or  the  drainage  bad.  The 
Champion,  Deering,  McCormick,  Osborne,  and  Piano  binders 
have  been  used  for  rice  harvesting,  but  at  the  present  time  the 
Deering  and  McCormick  are  used  almost  exclusively. '  The  writer 
has  used  a  Deering  binder  in  the  early  days  of  rice  culture, 
when  six  yoke  of  oxen  were  required  to  pull  it,  and  many  times 
the  water  was  over  the  platform  canvas.  At  the  present  time 
six  horses  are   required  on    a   six-foot  binder.    The  gasoline 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


81 


engine  is  being  used  with  success  to  furnish  motive  power  and 
the  machine  is  hauled  by  three  horses.  Rice  is  much  heavier  and 
harder  to  cut  than  any  other  grain,  largely  for  the  reason  that 
the  straw  is  usually  green.  A  binder  will  average  from  six  to 
twelve  acres  per  day.  The  rice  is  shocked  as  soon  as  cut.  In 
ordinary  weather,  the  rice  is  dry  enough  to  thresh  within  three 
weeks  after  cutting. 

Threshing— The  rice  thresher  is  similar  to  the  wheat 
machine.  Like  the  harvester,  it  is  built  stronger  and  with  a 
few  minor  changes  to  adapt  it  to  rice.  The  threshing  is  done  in 
the  field.    The  machine  is  equipped  with  bagger,  self-feeder. 


Storing  sacked  rice 


and  straw  blower.  Two  thousand  bushels  per  day  is  not  an 
uncommon  run.  Rice  is  put  in  bags  that  will  hold  about  200 
pounds  and  is  hauled  to  the  mill  or  warehouse.  If  the  season  is 
unusually  wet,  the  rice  is  stacked,  but  this  does  not  often  occur. 

Milling— Before  rice  can  be  eaten,  the  outer  husk  must  be 
removed.  This  as  well  as  the  polishing  is  done  in  the  rice  mills. 
The  polishing  process  removes  the  cuticle  that  covers  the  grain, 
and  the  germ  end.  #  The  by-products  of  the  rice  mills  are  rice 
polish  bran,  and  broken  or  brewer's  rice.  The  reason  for 
polishing  is  to  improve  the  looks  of  the  sample.*  It  is  said  also 
that  polished  rice  keeps  better.  The  greater  part  of  the  oil  and 
protein  is  in  the  by-products.    These  are  sold  largely  for  feed, 


82 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  83 

although  some  polish  is  manufactured  into  vegetable  ivory  used 
in  buttons  and  other  articles.  The  polish  sells  for  about  $20  and 
the  bran  for  $15  per  ton.  Rice  polish  makes  a  splendid  stock 
feed,  especially  for  young  animals;  in  this  respect  it  will  com- 
pare favorably  with  wheat  bran.  The  bran  is  a  good  feed  if 
used  fresh,  or  if  it  is  heated  to  the  temperature  of  live  steam  as 
soon  as  it  is  made.  Unless  this  is  done,  the  oils  break  down 
rapidly  into  the  corresponding  fatty  acids,  which  impairs  the 
digestibility  of  the  feed.  This  decomposition  is  due  to  an  enzyme 
called  lipase,  which  does  not  develop  when  the  material  is  heated. 

The  History  of  Rice  Growing  in  the  South  — Its  history  is 
similar  to  that  of  wheat  growing  in  the  West,  or  the  crop 
industry  of  any  other  country  where  one  crop  is  peculiarly 
adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate.  Rice  is  profitable,  and  it  is  a 
crop  that  is  reasonably  certain  when  the  irrigation  water  can  be 
controlled.  As  a  consequence,  rice  has  been  grown  year  after 
year  on  the  same  land  without  any  effort  to  keep  up  the  fertility 
of  the  soil.  As  a  consequence  yields  per  acre  were  reduced  and 
it  became  necessary  to  practice  some  crop  rotation  in  order  to 
build  up  the  soil  and  permit  the  land  to  rest.  More  attention 
is  being  given  to  livestock  and  to  the  utilization  of  farm 
manures.  Drains  are  being  opened  and  the  land  prepared  for 
corn,  sorghum,  peas,  potatoes,  and  other  crops.  Oats  are  planted 
in  June  and  turned  under  for  green  manure  or  pastured  down  in 
the  fall.  Rice  or  corn  follows  the  peas.  Commercial  fertilizer 
is  being  used  in  considerable  quantities  in  this  section. 

The  soils  of  the  rice  belt  contain  an  abundance  of  potash,  but 
are  very  deficient  in  phosphorus;  the  latter,  however,  can  be 
cheaply  supplied  in  the  form  of  raw  rock  phosphate.  This,  how- 
ever, can  be  used  only  in  connection  with  decaying  vegetable 
matter.  It  should  be  applied  at  the  rate  of  1,000  pounds  per 
acre  once  every  four  years.  Turning  under  cowpeas  or  other 
legumes  will  maintain  the  nitrogen  in  the  soil  and  render  the 
phosphate  of  the  raw  rock  available  as  well  as  the  soil  potash, 
which  is  in  a  more  or  less  fixed  condition  due  to  continual  crop- 
ping to  rice. 


^  ^  ^ 


The  Care  and  Protection  of  Farm 
Equipment 


By  M.  R.  D.  Owings 

Advertising  Manager,  International  Harvester  Company  of  America 


Since  the  arrival  of  dollar  wheat,  seventy- 
five  cent  corn,  and  fifty  cent  oats,  editors, 
college  professors,  and  economists  have 
taken  a  great  deal  of  pleasure  in  speak- 
ing of  the  present  day  farmer  as  a  "busi- 
ness man."  They  do  not  always  define 
the  term  and  on  close  scrutiny  it  looks 
as  if  the  so-called  '  'business' '  farmer  is 
such  sometimes  largely  because  high 
prices  of  his  products  have  made  him 
prosperous,  rather  than  because  of  his 
adoption  of  more  business-like  methods 
It  has  been  well  demonstrated  that  a  real  business  man  is 
successful  as  a  manufacturer  in  so  far  as  he  is  able  to  make 
mechanical  labor  take  the  place  of  less  productive  hand  labor, 
and  that  a  real  business  man  as  a  farmer  is  similarly  successful 
in  so  far  as  he  can  do  the  same  thing. 

But  here,  very  often,  is  where  the  resemblance  ceases. 
The  manufacturer  invests  so  much  money  in  labor-saving 
machines,  he  allows  so  much  for  depreciation;  and  then  proceeds 
to  see  that  his  machines  are  well  housed,  well  cared  for,  and 
kept  going.  He  figures  that  they  must  pay  so  much  interest  on 
the  original  investment  plus  a  profit  sufficiently  large  to  equal, 
ultimately,  the  original  investment.  The  longer  the  machines 
can  fulfill  the  duties  for  which  they  were  intended,  the  greater 
the  money  returns  on  the  first  outlay. 

When  a  farmer  figures  on  the  same  basis  in  caring  for  his 
equipment,  the  economic  term  of  "businessman"  fits  him,  and 
generally  you  can  call  him  an  automobile  owner  as  well.  But 
when  he  invests  his  capital  in  expensive  machines  —  and  many 
of  them  —  such  as  a  modern  farm  nowadays  necessitates,  and 
then  leaves  his  plow  in  the  fence  corner,  his  binder  in  the 
field,  and  his  new  wagon  under  the  eaves  of  his  cow  shed,  he 
falls  short  of  exercising  the  right  kind  of  business  methods. 

Perhaps  he  makes  enough  to  be  able  to  do  all  this  without 
noticing  the  drain  upon  his  gross  income.  Some  farmers  figure 
that  way,  but  it  is  not  good  commercial  doctrine. 

84 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  85 

The  money  which  a  farmer  puts  into  a  binder,  mower,  or 
manure  spreader,  is  capital  invested  just  as  much  as  the  money 
another  man  puts  into  a  machine  for  making-  shoes  or  spinning 
cotton.  It  deserves  an  annual  interest  and  an  ultimate  profit 
equally  as  much,  and  it  is  entitled  to  as  thorough  care  and  pro- 
tection. Furthermore,  the,laws  governing  continuity  of  service 
apply  exactly  the  same  to  a  cream  separator  and  a  wagon  as  to 
a  planer  or  grinder.  Of  course,  owing  to  the  seasonable  use  of 
farm  machines,  there  are  lapses  of  time  when  certain  machines 
must  remain  idle.  It  is  at  this  period  that  they  should  be  best 
protected.  Scientists  say  that  the  muscles  of  an  arm  wither 
more  quickly  from  inactivity  than  from  over-activity.  The  same 
thing-  is  true  of  equipment,  whether  on  the  farm  or  in  the  fac- 
tory. More  plows  have  been  worn  away  by  the  weather  than 
were  ever  worn  away  by  service. 

True  as  this  is,  very  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  the 
science  of  machine  care.  Experimental  stations  will  work  for 
years  to  show  how  to  grow  forty  bushels  of  wheat  where  only 
thirty  bushels  grew  before.  No  one  questions  the  usefulness  of 
this  work,  but  it  takes  the  difference  of  a  good  many  acres  to 
pile  up  enough  dollars  to  buy  a  new  binder;  and  yet,  very  little 
time  is  spent  in  showing  how  to  increase  the  life  of  a  binder  from 
five  to  ten  years.  Perhaps  they  leave  it  to  the  common  sense  of 
the  farmer.  If  they  do,  all  right,  for  common  sense  is  really  the 
thing  that  is  needed. 

College  instruction,  ancestral  advice,  and  original  research  in 
the  care  of  farm  machines  can  all  be  simmered  down  to  these 
three  elementary  necessities  —  good  roofs,  good  paint,  and  good 
lubricants.  These  three  determine  whether  the  days  of  a  ma- 
chine shall  be  long  in  the  land  or  whether  it  shall  soon  return 
to  the  dust  whence  it  came  and  another  order  go  to  the  firm 
who  made  it. 

Let  every  farmer  attend  to  this  trio.  How  and  when  are 
questions  which  each  must  answer  for  himself  —  not  very  pro- 
found questions,  but  very  important. 

Few  people  realize  how  simple  and  yet  how  essential  such 
care  is,  and  for  those  who  have  overlooked  this  phase  of  agricul- 
tural life,  we  give  the  esxperience  of  one  successful  Kentucky 
farmer  which  may  contain  helpful  suggestions. 

This  man  ran  a  big  farm  in  that  state  and  in  spite  of  ineffi- 
cient help  and  long-used  soil,  made  money.  He  was  a  firm 
believer  in  the  above  mentioned  triumvirate — good  roofs,  good 
paint,  and  good  lubricants  —  and  he  practiced  what  he  believed. 
Back  of  his  barn  he  had  erected  a  long,  low  shed,  not  particularly 
showy  nor  expensive,  but  dry,  and  under  this  shed  he  kept 
everything  in  the  equipment  line  —from  grindstone  to  wagons. 
In  one  end  he  built  a  home-made  improvised  paint  shop. 
Although  his  reputation  as  a  family  man  in  that  country  was 


86 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


good,  it  is  said  of  him  that  he  would  just  as  soon  leave  a  member 
of  his  family  outside  all  winter  as  his  mower  or  his  drilL 

When  he  finished  his  plowing,  he  saw  to  it  that  his  men 


fflffl| 


Front  elevation  of  farm  machine  shed. 


SLIDE    DOOR 


Ln       'doui 


DOUBLE  DOORS 


Space  for  Buqgiy 

AND  AoTOMOBiuE 
o, 

lURE  t 


Floor  plan  for  machine  shed 


brought  the  plow  back  to  the  shed.  He  then  went  over  it 
thoroughly  with  a  coat  of  grease,  and  it  was  left  that  way  all 
winter.    In  the  spring  a  little  kerosene  was  applied  which 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


87 


loosened  the  grease  so  that  with  the  first  contact  with  the 
ground  the  share  came  out  smooth  and  shiny  like  a  mirror. 

''That  plow,"  said  the  Kentuckian,  "cost  me  $35.00.  The 
grease  cost  but  a  few  cents,  arid  it  made  the  plow  last  several 
years  longer. 


End  elevaiion 


Concrete    p 


lERS  — *\_\ 


Sectjon  ON  Line    A-A 

Scale  '/^x  \  Foot 

*  *  That  is  just  an  illustration, ' '  continued  he,  "  of  my  procedure 
with  every  machine  I  own.  Every  two  years  I  make  it  a 
point  to  go  over  the  binders,  mowers,  and  all  the  machines  I 
have  on  the  place  with  a  good  metal  base  paint.  I  take  off  the 
binder  canvases,  roll  them  up,  and  put  them  out  of  the  way  of 


88  FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

the  mice.  I  grease  the  sickles  of  the  mowers  and  binders,  wrap 
them  up,  and  put  them  away  in  a  dry  place.  Then  when  I  have 
occasion  to  use  these  machines  I  put  the  sickles  back  in  place, 
and  before  the  first  circuit  of  the  field  is  completed  they  are  as 
bright  and  shiny  as  when  new. 

"Perhaps  also  the  question  of  pride  helps  a  little,  because  I 
always  like  to  have  everything  about  the  farm  clean  and  bright. 
I  generally  use  red  paint  because  I  like  that  color,  and  because 
red  lead  is  better  than  white  lead  for  outside  work.  I  keep  even 
the  tongues  and  whiffletrees  of  my  wagons  as  good  as  new. 
They  are  mostly  made  of  locust  in  our  country,  and  when  prop- 
erly painted,  last  a  century. 

"  This  painting  is  not  just  a  hobby ;  I  have  found  that  it  pays. 
One  time  I  sold  a  binder  which  I  had  used  steadily  for  six  years^ 
for  over  two-thirds  of  what  it  cost  me,  and  I  didn't  cheat  the 
fellow,  either.    It  was  practically  as  good  as  new. 

*'I  am  a  paint  advocate  alright,  and  it  seems  to  me  that 
hired  men  may  come  and  hired  men  may  go,  but  my  wagons, 
mowers,  and  drills  go  on  forever. 

*' I  don't  use  up  all  this  paint  because  I  feel  more  friendly 
toward  the  paint  manufacturers  than  I  do  toward  the  Interna- 
tional Harvester  Company  of  America.  It  is  merely  a  matter 
of  economy  with  me  because  paint  is  cheaper  than  new  machines. 

*'I  am  even  more  cranky  on  the  lubricants.  You  know  the 
parts  of  a  binder,  for  instance,  that  are  subject  to  wear  are  the 
chains,  the  gears,  the  boxes,  and  knotter.  Fainting  won't  help 
these,  but  plenty  of  oil  will.  When  I  first  started  farming  the 
most  important  bit  of  barn  furniture  was  the  oil  can.  I  make 
it  a  rule,  after  each  long  trip,  to  grease  my  wagons,  with  the 
result  that  they  are  always  ready  and  always  ship-shape.  I 
invent  patent  dust  protectors  of  my  own  when  none  come  with 
a  machine,  and  where  this  is  not  possible  I  keep  the  exposed 
parts  well  cleaned. 

"  Now  all  of  this  may  seem  rather  unimportant  to  some  farm- 
ers, or  they  may  think  it  a  great  deal  of  trouble  for  nothing, 
but  I  never  notice  the  trouble  and,  in  the  long  run,  I  find  that 
it  is  a  good  form  of  economy.  I  farmed  for  many  years,  at  a 
time  when  prices  were  much  lower  than  they  are  now,  and  I 
made  my  farm  pay.  I  do  not  claim  that  it  was  all  due  to  my 
caring  for  my  equipment,  but  the  fact  that  I  have  made  every 
cent  of  capital  invested  in  machines  return  100  cents  on  the 
dollar,  and  then  some,  has  had  a  great  deal  to  do  with  my 
prosperity." 


-^-^^^^^t^^^-*:- 


Tile  Drainage  in  the  South 


By  J.  E.  Waggoner 


Agricultural  Extension  Department,  International  Harvester  Company, 
Harvester  Building,  Chicago 

The  vast  area  of  und rained  sw amp  lands 
in  the  South,  if  properly  tiled  and  cul- 
tivated, would  add  millions  of  dollars 
to  our  wealth,  thus  increasing  the  com- 
fort of  our  homes  and  aiding  in  the  devel- 
opment of  our  industries.  It  is  true 
that  a  large  proportion  of  this  land  is 
located  in  large  drainage  districts  requir- 
ing considerable  capital  to  develop  prop- 
erly. It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  article, 
however,  to  deal  with  large  drainage 
districts,  but  rather  to  consider  the 
small  40,  60,  80,  and  160-acre  farms  which  have  land  that  should 
be  drained. 

Thousands  of  farmers  are  attempting  to  farm  land  that  is 
only  partly  drained.  Many  of  the  total  failures  of  crops,  as  well 
as  a  large  percentage  of  partial  failures,  are  due  to  attempting 
to  farm  land  which  is  in  poor  condition,  due  to  a  lack  of  drain- 
age. Cold  soil,  slow  to  warm  up  in  the  spring,  a  hard,  packed 
condition  during  the  hot  summer,  and  poor,  stunted,  yellow- 
looking  plants  are  indicative  of  undrained  land.  The  soil  is  the 
home  of  the  plant,  which  unlike  other  forms  of  life  is  unable  to 
change  its  location.  If  a  seed  falls  in  a  low  place  it  must  germi- 
nate and  grow  there  if  at  all.  If  the  soil  is  in  good  condition, 
all  is  well  and  good.  If  it  is  partly  drained  or  not  at  all,  the 
plant's  lot  is  a  poor  one.  Tile  drainage  is  one  of  the  most 
important  and  one  of  the  most  valuable  ways  of  improving  the 
condition  of  the  soil — the  home  of  the  plant. 

The  water  of  the  soil  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  drain- 
age water  and  soil  moisture.  The  drainage  water  is  that  which 
may  be  removed  by  gravity,  or,  in  other  words,  that  water 
which  fills  the  spaces  of  the  soil.  Soil  moisture  is  made  up  of 
the  small  films  of  water  which  encircle  each  particle  of  soil.  It 
is  the  soil  moisture  which  is  utilized  by  the  growing  plant. 
Soil  moisture  is  replenished  from  the  drainage  water,  but  the 
latter  is  not  utilized  directly  by  the  growing  plants. 

Tile  Drained  Land  Warms  Up  Early— Well  drained  land 
will  warm  up  from  ten  days  to  two  weeks  earlier  in  the  spring, 
thus  permitting  earlier  and  more  timely  cultivation.    In  the 


90 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


production  of  early  crops,  two  weeks'  gain  at  this  season  often 
means  the  difference  between  a  bumper  crop  and  a  poor  one. 

Tile  drainage  raises  the  temperature  of  the  soil  by  removing 
drainage  water  which  otherwise  would  have  to  be  evaporated 
from  the  surface.  Ordinary  clay  soil  contains  from  40  to  65  per 
cent  of  voids  or  air  spaces;  black  loam,  40  to  50  per  cent;  and 
sandy  loam,  35  to  40  per  cent.  If  the  soil  is  saturated  with 
water,  these  voids  are  full.  Then  in  a  saturated  cubic  foot  of 
clay  soil  there  would  be  practically  50  per  cent  water  or  at  least 
thirty  pounds  of  water.    The  same  would  be  true  in  relative 


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Tools  used  in  tiling 


proportions  with  the  other  types  of  soil.  It  has  been  found  by 
experiment  that  removing  one  pound  of  water  by  evaporation 
lowers  the  temperature  of  the  soil  10.3  degrees.  It  is  easy  to 
see  that  where  the  soil  is  saturated  the  temperature  would 
remain  low  considerably  longer  than  if  the  drainage  water  were 
removed  by  tiling  or  underdrainage  instead  of  by  evaporation. 

Facilitates  Aeration— Air  plays  an  important  part  in  crop 
production.  In  fact,  many  soils,  have  been  found  to  be  practi- 
cally unproductive  until  properly  aerated.  The  presence  of  air 
encourages  the  roots  to  penetrate  into  the  subsoil,    through 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  91 

which  the  air  circulates  still  further,  encouraging  and  support- 
ing bacterial  growth,  which  is  absolutely  necessary  in  order  to 
convert  vegetable  matter  and  humus  of  the  soil  into  available 
plant  food.  The  combining  of  the  elements  and  gases  of  the 
air  with  soil  moisture  creates  conditions  which  encourage 
chemical  action,  thus  liberating  many  plant  food  elements 
from  the  insoluble  and  inert  particles  of  soil. 

Tile  drainage  in  reality  establishes  what  might  be  termed  a 


Dry  Land 


^ 


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«. 


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<y 


.o^ 


*Fi6.  1.    The  natural  system 

reservoir,  which  offsets  the  effect  of  the  unusually  heavy  rains 
by  permitting  the  water  to  soak  into  the  soil  instead  of  running 
off  the  surface.  As  this  water  finds  its  way  down  through  the 
soil  to  the  tile  drain  below  it  carries  with  it  the  gases  of  the 
air,  thus  tending  to  deepen  the  soil  and  to  improve  it  as  the 
home  of  the  plant. 

Reduces  E)rosion  and  Improves  the  Soil — In  sections 
where  the  rainfall  is  unusually  heavy,  one  of  the  problems  is  to 
prevent  soil  erosion,  or  the  wasting  away  of  the  surface  by 


92  FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


washing.    Tile  drainage  deepens  the  soil,  allowing  it  to  take  up 
some  of  the  water,  and  thus  tends  to  prevent  surface  erosion. 

It  is  a  matter  of  observation  that  well-drained  land  will  resist 
drought  better  than  undrained.  The  principal  reason  for  this 
Is  the  improved  physical  condition  of  the  soil  resulting  from 
drainage.  The  drained  soil  will  also  withstand  wet  weather 
much  better  than  undrained. 


*Fi^«  2.    The  ^roupln^  system 

Principles  to  Follo>v  in  Tile  Drainage  —  1.  Lay  the  drains 
in  the  natural  lines  of  drainage  as  much  as  possible,  as  laying 
them  in  this  way  will  tend  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the 
drain.  2.  Avoid  short  laterals  so  far  as  possible— the  land  near 
the  main  line  is  drained  by  this  line,  and  if  short  laterals  are 
used  a  part  of  the  land  will  be  double  drained,  thus  increasing 
the  expense  unnecessarily.  3.  Lay  the  tile  lines  as  straight  as 
possible,  as  crooked  1  ines  retard  the  flow  of  the  water.  Where  the 
direction  of  the  tile  is  to  be  changed  use  an  easy  curve.  4.  Lay 
the  tile  lines  so  as  to  reach  all  parts  of  the  field. 

Systems  of  Tile  Drains — Keeping  in  mind  the  principles  to 
follow  as  outlined  above,  there  are  at  least  three  systems  which 
may  be  used  for  laying  out  tile  drains. 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


93 


The  simplest  system  is  indicated  in  Figure  1.  There  is  amain 
line  with  laterals  wherever  occasion  requires.  This  system  may 
be  used  in  small  fields,  and  on  small  undrained  areas. 

The  grouping  system,  as  shown  in  Figure  2,  is  a  combination 
of  several  natural  or  simple  systems,  and  may  be  used  where  the 
area  is  quite  large,  in  basins,  sloughs,  and  elsewhere  if  a  good 
outlet  is  available.  By  a  natural  system  is  meant  one  that  fol- 
lows the  direction  that  the  water  takes  when  running  off  the 
surface. 

The  gridiron  system,  as  shown  in  Figure  3,  is  sometimes 
adapted  to  land  that  is  nearly  level,  and  is  made  up  of  a  series 


K3 


CO 


d 


*Fi6.  3.    The  gridiron  system 


of  parallel  laterals, each  emptying  into  the  same  main  line. 

Each  of  these  systems  embodies  the  use  of  the  four  principles 
as  outlined  above ;  namely,  following  the  natural  lines  of  drain- 
age, avoiding  the  use  of  short  laterals,  following  straight  lines, 
and  reaching  all  parts  of  the  field. 

Depth  of  Tile— The  depth  at  which  tile  should  belaid  varies 
considerably  in  different  soils.  In  the  prairie  land  of  some 
sections  subject  ^to  periodical  freezing,  and  where  the  soil  is  of 
an  alluvial  nature,  the  tile  line  may  be  laid  four  to  four  and  a 
half  feet,  and  yet  give  good  results.  In  soils  that  are- waxy, 
impervious,  and  of  a  fine  texture— of  a  buck  shot  nature— the 
tile  should  not  be  laid  so  deep.  Generally  speaking,  the  best 
success  has  been  obtained  in  most  Southern  soils  by  laying  the 


94 


FOB  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


tile  from  thirty  to  thirty-two  inches  deep.     It  is  never  advisa- 
ble to  allow  tile  to  be  less  than  eighteen  inches  below  the  surface. 

Distance  Between  Tile  Lines  —  The  distance  between  the 
lines  of  tile  varies  with  the  depth  that  the  tile  is  laid,  which  is 
determined  by  the  nature  of  the  soil.  When  the  tile  are  placed 
shallow,  the  lines  must  be  put  close  together  and  vice  versa. 
The  distance  apart  varies  from  thirty-five  to  180  feet.  Experi- 
ence will  teach  what  is  best  in  individual  cases. 

The  Grade  to  Use— By  the  grade  we  mean  the  fall  per 
hundred  feet.  This  is  often  expressed  in  feet,  but  may  be 
expressed  satisfactorily  in  inches.  Generally  speaking  the  size 
of  the  tile  should  be  increased  with  the  lessening  of  the  grade. 
We  have  seen  a  case  where  the  tile  lines  were  laid  perfectly  level 
for  several  hundred  feet,  and  gave  good  satisfaction,  but  in  this 
case,  the  required  velocity  of  the  water  was  gotten  by  the  excess 


The  depth  of  the  tile  effects  the  'vvidth  of  area  drained 

of  fall  from  the  laterals  and  from  the  main  line  above.  Also, 
in  this  particular  instance,  the  tile  was  sixteen  inches  in 
diameter.  Smaller  tile  would  probably  not  have  given  good 
results.  A  fall  of  two  to  four  inches  per  hundred  feet  will  give 
good  results  with  tile  from  four  inches  and  up,  providing  the 
tile  line  does  not  exceed  800  or  1,000  feet  in  length.  For  shorter 
lines,  less  grade  may  be  used,  and  in  case  of  longer  lines,  larger 
size  tile  should  be  used.  Remember  you  can  never  get  too  much 
grade. 

Selecting  the  Tile — In  purchasing  tile  it  is  well  to  see  to  it 
that  they  are  vitrified  but  not  glazed.  The  ends  should  be 
squarely  cut,  and  it  is  extremely  important  that  the  inside 
should  be  smooth  and  free  from  roughness.  Table  1  shows  the 
size  of  tile  used  for  different  areas  of  land  when  the  fall  is  known. 
For  instance,  if  we  have  one  foot  fall  in  one  hundred  feet,  four- 
inch  tile  will  drain  11.9  acres,  six-inch  tile  will  drain  33.1  acres, 
etc.    This  will  assist  you  in  selecting  the  size  of  tile  to  use. 


95 


96 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SO  CITE 


SIZE  OF  TILE  FOR  MAIN  DRAIN 

Table  1.    (McConnell) 


FALL 


foot  in 


20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

150 

200 

250 

300 

400 

500 

600 

800 

1,000 


ACRES  DRAINED 

4-inch 

6-incli 

8-inch 

10-inch 

12-inch 

Tile 

Tile 

Tile 

Tile 

Tile 

26.8 

74.4 

150.0 

270.0 

426.0 

21.8 

60.4 

128.0 

220.8 

346.0 

18.6 

51.6 

108.8 

189.6 

298.4 

17.0 

47.7 

98.0 

170.4 

269.0 

15.6 

43.4 

90.0 

156.0 

246.0 

14.5 

39.9 

83.0 

144.4 

228.1 

13.4 

37.2 

77.0 

135.0 

213.0 

12.6 

35.0 

72.5 

127.0 

200.5 

11.9 

33.1 

69.2 

120.6 

190.5 

9.5 

26.6 

56.0 

97.3 

154.4 

8.2 

22.8 

48.0 

83.9 

133.5 

7.5 

20.4 

42.4 

74.4 

117.0 

6.9- 

18.4 

38.2 

65.5 

107.0 

5.9 

16.5 

32.6 

60.3 

90.7 

5.2 

14.8 

30.1 

54.0 

81.6 

4.7 

13.3 

28.0 

48.6' 

74.0 

4.1 

11.4 

24.0 

41.9 

65.0 

3.7 

10.2 

21.2 

37.2 

56.0 

Cement  tile  may  be  used  equally  as  well  as  clay  tile,  if  they 
are  available.  Properly  made  cement  tile  are  being-  generally 
used,  and  are  giving-  good  satisfaction.  In  cases  where  a  large 
area  is  to  be  drained,  and  sand  arid  cement  can  be  obtained 
cheaply,  a  machine  for  making  cement  tile  may  prove  more 
economical  than  buying  the  clay  tile. 


B8I 

Fi£.  4.     The  stakes  and  hubs 


''^'**i^ 


Laying  Out  a  System  of  Tile  Drains  — The  first  thing  to 
do  is  to  locate  the  outlet,  which  should  be  a  good  one.  Starting 
at  the  outlet,  stake  out  the  main  line,  as  shown  in  Figure  4, 
from  which  the  laterals  may  lead  to  all  parts  of  the  field.  The 
hub  stakes  should  be  set  fifty  feet  apart,  and  a  foot  to  one  side 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH  97 

of  where  you  intend  to  dig  the  ditch,  by  the  side  of  which  is 
driven  a  guide  stake  which  should  stand  about  a  foot  high,  and 
should  be  labeled  or  numbered  beginning  at  the  outlet. 

Finding  the  Grade— There  is  very  little  complicated  engi- 
neering work  connected  with  laying  out  a  system  of  tile  drains 
on  the  ordinary  farm  land,  but  when  the  thousands  of  dollars 
that  have  been  wasted  through  a  lack  of  proper  laying  of  tile 
are  considered,  the  importance  of  following  some  correct  method 
of  finding  the  grade  is  apparent.  If  you  do  not  have  a  farm 
level,  or  are  not  familiar  with  the  handling  of  this  instrument, 
it  would  be  advisable  to  employ  a  competent  engineer  to  lay  out 


(UCVtCUNE  ') 


'      Fi4.  5 

your  tile  drainage  system.  The  extra  expense  of  the  engineer 
is  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  total  cost  of  the  tile  drain,  so 
small,  in  fact,  that  one  cannot  afford  to  risk  laying  the  tile 
improperly.  The  method  of  securing  the  grade,  as  outlined 
below,  will  assist  the  farmer  who  attempts  to  use  a  level  of  his 
own,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  made  as  simple  as  possible.  Like 
other  methods,  it  is  subject  to  some  error,  but  if  carefully 
executed,  the  percentage  of  error  will  be  small,  and  it  has  in  its 
favor  the  strong  point  of  simplicity. 

Starting  at  the  outlet,  take  the  elevation  of  the  hub  at  that 
point,  which  we  will  call  Station  0.     We  will  consider  this  as 


After  the  final  hubs  have  been  set 


the  datum  plane,  or  in  other  words,  will  figure  all  other  eleva- 
tions from  this  point.  Next  get  the  elevation  of  Stations  1,  2, 
3,  4,  etc.  As  you  will  note  in  Figure  5  an  example  has  been 
worked  out  giving  the  different  elevations  at  each  point.  For 
instance,  the  elevation  of  Station  1  is  one  inch  higher  than 
Station  0,  Station  2  is  four  inches  higher.  Station  3  six  inches 
higher,  and  Station  4,  twelve  inches  higher  than  Station  0.  You 
will  note  that  the  distance  if  rom  Stations  0  to  4  is  two  hundred 
feet,  giving  a  fall  of  three  inches  every  fifty  feet.  With  this  in 
mind  we  will  start  at  the  outlet,  and  set  the  final  hubs.  By 
the  use  of  a  surveying  instrument,  drive  the  hubs  at  the  vari- 
ous stations  until-  they  are  the  following  distances  above  the 


98  FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

hub  at  Station  0:  Station  1,  three  inches;  Station  2,  six  inches; 
Station  3,  nine  inches;  Station  4,  twelve  inches.  If  it  were 
possible  to  sight  over  the  top  of  these  hubs,  we  would  find  that 
they  are  in  a  straight  line,  and  that  this  line  has  a  uniform 
slope  of  six  inches  to  a  hundred  feet. 

All  fields  may  not  work  out  as  simply  as  the  above  example, 
so  we  will  cite  another  case,  which  will  show  how  to  handle  a 
more  complicated  problem.  Figure  6  shows  that  the  elevation 
of  the  different  stations  above  Station  0  is  as  follows:  Station 
1,  one  inch;  Station  2,  four  inches;  Station  3,  six  inches;  Station 
4,  eighteen  inches.  Now,  if  we  were  to  divide  the  eighteen  inches 
by  four,  giving  a  uniform  fall  of  four  and  a  half  inches  per  fifty 


Fi6.  6. 


feet,  by  the  time  we  reached  Station  3,  we  would  be  too  close  to 
the  surface  of  the  ground  with  our  tile  line  to  obtain  profitable 
returns.  In  this  case,  we  will  consider  only  Stations  0,  1,  2, 
and  3.  ^  We  will  divide  six,  the  elevation  of  Station  3,  by  three, 
which  will  give  a  uniform  fall  of  two  inches  per  fifty  feet. 
Starting  as  before,  we  will  drive  the  hub  at  Station  1  until  it  is 
two  inches  higher  than  the  one  at  Station  0,  Station  2  will  be 
four  inches  higher,  and  Station  3,  six  inches  higher.  We  will 
now  change  the  grade,  and  set  the  stake  at  Station  4,  twelve  inches 


-J^ 


The  final  hub  showing  change  of  ilrade 

(the  difference  between  18  and  6)  above  the  stake  at  Station  3. 
This  will  give  the  line  a  fall  of  twelve  inches  the  last  fifty  feet. 

Grading — The  three  systems  of  grading  that  are  generally 
used  are  the  target,  the  string,  and  the  flow  of  water.  Of  these 
the  target  system  is  the  most  accurate  for  all  practical  purposes 
and  the  most  generally  used,  and  for  this  reason  will  be  con- 
sidered in  this  article.  The  string  sometimes  used  is  subject 
to  sag  and  is  affected  by  the  wind,  thus  making  it  unreliable 
and  not  to  be  generally  recommended.  In  some  cases,  where 
the  fall  is  unusually  great,  the  flow  of  water  might  be  used 
satisfactorily.  It  is  not  to  be  recommended,  however,  because 
of  the  impossibility  of  detecting  small  variations  in  the  grade, 
which  will  cause  pockets  in  the  tile  line.    These  pockets  soon 


FOB  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 


99 


become  filled  with  silt  or  sediment,  thus  decreasing  the  efiSciency 
of  the  tile.  When  the  amount  of  money,  time,  and  labor  invested 
in  laying  a  tile  system  is  taken  into  account,  it  is  easy  to  see 
the  importance  of  being  absolutely  certain  that  the  tile  is  laid 
to  grade,  and  that  the  grade  is  properly  established.  This  can 
be  done  only  by  using  a  surveying  instrument. 

The  Target  System — All  that  is  necessary  in  the  target 
system  of  grading  is  to  make  two  or  three  targets  as  shown  in 
Figure  7,  and  one  sighting  rod,  which  should  be  about  four  and 
a  half  feet  in  length,  depending  upon  the  height  of  the  man 
doing  the  grading. 


OtlJii 

r V- 

"~T"""J T'                 / 

' 

Fi^.  7.  Grading  the  ditch 

The  targets  may  now  be  set  as  follows:  We  will  say  that 
the  tile  at  a  certain  station  are  to  be  laid  thirty  inches  deep. 
The  sighting  rod  is  fifty-four  inches  long.  The  target  should 
be  set  so  that  it  is  two  feet  above  the  hubs.  In  other  words, 
the  depth  of  the  ditch  and  the  height  of  the  target  should  equal 
the  length  of  the  sighting  rod. 

Digging  the  Ditch— Start  at  the  outlet  in  digging  the  ditch. 
The  top  twenty-four  inches  should  be  removed,  leaving  the  last 
six  inches  to  be  thrown  out  by  the  man  doing  the  grading. 


nn 


)    )   ) 


X   '     f     '-g 


Fi^.  S.     Sa^s  in  tile  line  soon  become  filled  -iirith  silt 

Start  at  the  outlet  when  doing  the  grading,  so  that  the  sight- 
ing rod  will  just  reach  the  top  of  the  target.  Work  back  to 
Station  1,  keeping  the  top  of  the  sighting  rod  in  line  with  the 
top  of  the  two  targets.  Work  this  way  until  you  have  passed 
Station  2.  Then  remove  the  target  at  Station  0,  and  place  it  at 
Station  2,  setting  it  the  right  distance  above  the  hub.  Continue 
until  the  ditch  is  finished.  By  a  little  practice  you  will  be  able 
to  grade  a  ditch  properly,  giving  it  a  uniform  grade  from  end 
to  end,  which  will  insure  proper  laying  of  the  tile,  and  prevent 
the  loss  due  to  sags  and  variation  in  the  grade  of  the  tile. 

To  lay  stress  upon  the  danger  of  poor  grading,   you   will 


100  FOR  BETTER  CROPS  IN  THE  SOUTH 

observe  in  Figure  8,  the  result  of  carelessness  in  grading  the 
ditch.  The  low  places  or  sags  in  the  tile  become  filled  with 
dirt  until  finally  the  tile  is  completely  choked.  This  can  be 
avoided  by  a  careful  surveying  of  the  land  before  attempting  to 
drain  it  and  by  exercising  a  little  care  in  establishing  the  grade 
line. 

Laying  the  Tile— In  laying  the  tile  line,  we  should  begin  at 
the  outlet,  which  should  be  carefully  protected  either  by  build- 
ing a  small  concrete  outlet  protector,  or  by  using  one  of  the 
galvanized  outlets  which  may  be  purchased  on  the  market.  It 
is  usually  best  to  use  a  liberal  quantity  of  concrete,  putting  it 
around  the  first  five  or  six  tile.  This  will  prevent  settling  and 
clogging,  providing  the  outlet  is  subject  to  washing.  A  few  iron 
bars  across  the  opening  of  the  outlet  will  prevent  small  animals 
from  entering  the  tile.  The  tile  should  be  laid  close  together  — 
as  close  as  possible.  If  the  cracks  between  them  exceed  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  they  should  be  covered  with  pieces  of  broken 
tile,  or  with  heavy  clay,  or  some  other  such  substance.  In  sandy 
soil,  it  is  important  to  see  that  the  bottom  edges  of  the  tile  fit 
closely  together.  In  this  type  of  soil  it  is  best  to  put  a  small 
quantity  of  heavy  clay  underneath  the  joints.  This  may  seem 
to  be  an  unusual  amount  of  bother  and  trouble,  but  when  one 
considers  that  it  is  much  better  to  lay  the  tile  properly  in  the 
first  place,  than  it  is  to  dig  it  up  after  it  has  become  obstructed, 
he  will  rea|,lize  the  importance  of  exercising  a  little  care  to  begin 
with.  After  the  tile  is  laid,  a  few  inches  of  dirt  should  be  care- 
fully placed  on  top  to  hold  them  in  place  while  filling  the  ditch. 

Filling  the  Ditch—  Filling  the  ditch  may  be  done  by  the  use 
of  the  slip  scraper,  plow  or  road  grader.  The  plow  is  most  com- 
monly used,  it  being  necessary  to  make  a  long  evener  so  that  the 
horses  may  walk  far  enough  away  from  the  ditch  to  prevent  any 
danger  of  falling  in. 

Open  Ditches  —  The  open  ditch  finds  its  best  use  as  an  out- 
let for  tile  drains.  When  the  volume  of  water  is  sufficient  to 
warrant  digging  an  open  ditch  it  is  best  to  use  a  team  and  a  slip 
scraper.  First,  plow  several  furrows,  then  by  the  use  of  the  slip 
scraper  open  up  the  ditch.  This  will  make  a  shallow  ditch, 
which  may  be  easily  crossed  and  can  be  kept  clean  by  the  use  of 
the  mower,  except  in  cases  where  excess  of  water  causes  wash- 
ing. If  such  is  the  case  a  permanent  ditch  is  needed.  An  open 
ditch  is  generally  an  eye  sore  to  a  field,  as  it  is  a  place  for  the 
growing  of  noxious  weeds.  It  is  inconvenient  to  cross  with  a 
team  and  prevents  the  cultivation  of  all  the  land.  It  is 
much  better  wherever  possible  to  use  a  tile  drain  instead  of  an 
open  ditch. 


*Taken  from  Elliott's  Engineering  for  Land  Drainage. 


THE  I  H  G  LINE 


GRAIN  MACHINES 
Binders  Headers 

Reapers  Header  Binders 

HAY  MACHINES 
Mowers  Hay  Loaders 

Rakes  Hay  Presses 

Sweep  Rakes       Stackers 
Tedders       Side  Delivery  Rakes 
Combined  Sweep  Rakes  and 
Stackers 


CORN  MACHINES 
Planters  Pickers 

Cultivators      Shellers 
Binders  Corn  Stalk  Rakes 

Huskers  and  Shredders 

TILLAGE 

Disk  Harrows  Cultivators 

Spring-Tooth  Harrows 
Peg-Tooth  Harrows 

Combination  Harrows 


GENERAL  LINE 
Auto  Wagons  Binder  Twine  Manure  Spreaders 

Feed  Grinders  Kerosene-Gasoline  Tractors  Rope 

Cream  Separators  Threshers  Knife  Grinders 

Oil  and  Gas  Engines  Grain  Drills     Fclrm  Wagons  and  Trucks 


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